Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [i] Garcia et al [2005] Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [ii] Garcia et al [2005] Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [iii] Garcia et al [2005] Wildlife Farmers’ and Producers’ Booklet #2: The Collared Peccary/ Javelina/ Sajino/ Poco do Monte/ Wild Hog/ Pakira/ Patira/ Taitetu/ Catete/ Catto/ Quenk [Tayassu tajacu, T. peccary] Booklet and Producers’ Manual Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [iv] Garcia et al [2005] Wildlife Farmers’ and Producers’ Booklet #2: The Collared Peccary/ Javelina/ Sajino/ Poco do Monte/ Wild Hog/ Pakira/ Patira/ Taitetu/ Catete/ Catto/ Quenk [Tayassu tajacu, T. peccary] Booklet and Producers’ Manual Gary Wayne Garcia, Gail G. Young, Kirk M. Amour, Desmond James, Cicero H.O. Lallo, William Mollineau, Anil Roopchand, Nirmala Ganessingh, Michelle Spencer, Marvin A. Prosper, Raajesh Rooplal, Nadra Nathai-Gyan, Arnaud Steil, Alain Xande, Anouk Bemelmans, Sérgio Gamma Nogueira Filho, Diva Guimaraes, Hugo Gálvez and Pedro Mayor Aparicio The Open Tropical Forage-Animal Production Laboratory [OTF-APL] Department of Food Production , Faculty of Science and Agriculture The University of the West Indies St Augustine, Trinidad, Trinidad and Tobago, W.I. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [v] Garcia et al [2005] The Collared Peccary/ Javelina/ Sajino/ Poco do Monte/ Wild Hog/ Pakira/ Patira/ Taitetu/ Catete/ Catto/ Quenk [Tayassu tajacu, T. peccary] Booklet and Producers’ Manual Gary Wayne Garcia, Gail G. Young, Kirk M. Amour, Desmond James, Cicero H.O. Lallo, William Mollineau, Anil Roopchand, Nirmala Ganessingh, Michelle Spencer, Marvin A. Prosper, Raajesh Rooplal, Nadra Nathai-Gyan, Arnaud Steil, Alain Xande, Anouk Bemelmans, Sérgio Gamma Nogueira Filho, Diva Guimaraes, Hugo Gálvez and Pedro Mayor Aparacio [2005] Wildlife Farmers’ and Producers’ Booklet #2 [First Edition] July 2005 Published by: GWG Publications, 24 Sagan Drive, Champs Fleurs, Trinidad, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies ISBN 976-95123-1-1 © Gary Wayne Garcia All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with the written permission or in accordance with the written provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any license permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 9HE, or under the Copyright Act of Trinidad and Tobago. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. Printed by TRINPAD DIRECT LIMITED, Marabella, Trinidad and Tobago, W.I. Cover Design by Nirmala Ganessingh and inside cover photograph by Gary Wayne Garcia. All materials cited or used for scientific arguments are cited within the text. The publishers acknowledge the sources of information for scientific purposes, but if any have been overlooked, they will be pleased to make the necessary corrections/ amendments at the first opportunity. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [vi] Garcia et al [2005] Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [vii] Garcia et al [2005] The Collared Peccary/ Javelina/ Sajino/ Poco do Monte/ Wild Hog/ Pakira/ Patira/ Taitetu/ Catete/ Catto/ Quenk [Tayassu tajacu, T. peccary] Booklet and Producers’ Manual by 1 2 3 4 Gary Wayne Garcia, Gail G. Young, Kirk M. Amour, Desmond James, 5 6 7 8 Cicero H.O. Lallo, William Mollineau, Anil Roopchand, Nirmala Ganessingh, 9 3 10 11 Michelle Spencer, Marvin A. Prosper, Raajesh Rooplal, Nadra Nathai-Gyan, 12 13 14 15 16 Arnaud Steil, , Alain Xande, Anouk Bemelmans, Sérgio Gamma Nogueira Filho, Diva 17 18 Guimaraes, Hugo Gálvez, and Pedro Mayor Aparicio Republic of Trinidad and Tobago 1 Senior Lecturer in Animal Production, Department of Food Production, Co-ordinator, The Open Tropical Forage-Animal Production Laboratory [OTF-APL], Department of Food Production [DFP], Faculty of Science and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies [UWI], St. Augustine, Trinidad, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies. e-mail: garygwg1@yahoo.com 2 Research Technichan OTF-APL, DFP, UWI and Technicienne Faune Sauvage, Station Experimentale de Soucoumou, Chambre d’Agriculture de la Guyane, 8 rue du General de Gaulle, le Cayenne, French Guyana 3 M.Sc. Tropical Animal Science and Production Graduate, OTF-APL, DFP, UWI 4 Wildlife and Peccary Farmer, Circular Drive, Mausica, Trinidad, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies 5 Lecturer in Animal Production, OTF-APL, DFP, UWI 6 Teaching Assistant in Animal Production and M.Sc. Tropical Animal Science and Production Graduate OTF-APL, DFP, UWI 7 Research Technician in Animal Production and M.Sc. Tropical Animal Science and Production Graduate OTF-APL, DFP, UWI 8 Agricultural Assistant, (M.Sc. Candidate Crop Protection, DFP, UWI) Ministry of Public Utilities and the Environment, Trinidad and Tobago 9 Graduate Student M.Sc. Tropical Animal Science and Production, OTF-APL, DFP, UWI 10 B.Sc. Agriculture General Graduate, OTF-APL, DFP, UWI 11 Director, Wildlife Unit, Forestry Division, Ministry of Public Utilities and the Environment, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies Republic Francaişe 12 Chef de Service, Service d’Utilité Agricole de Technologie et d’Innovation [SUA-TI] Station Experimentale de Soucoumou, Chambre d’Agriculture de la Guyane, 8 rue de General de Gaulle, la Cayenne, French Guyana 13 President Institute Nationale de la Recherche Agronomique [INRA] Antilles-Guyane, Petit Bourg, Guadeloupe 14 Graduate, DESS, Dévélopment Durable, Faculté de Geographie, Université Lumière-LYON 2, France Brazil 15 Professor of Wildlife, Universidade Estadual do Santa Cruz, Bahia, Brazil 16 Wildlife Resacher, Departemento de Psicologia Experimental, Universidade Federal do Para, Av. Agusto Correa 01, 66075-110, Belem, Brazil Peru 17 Investigador, Instituto Veterinario de Investigaciones Tropicales y de Altura [IVITA], Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Aptdo 575, Iquitos, Peru Spain 18 Doctoral Graduate, Departament de Sanitat i Anatomia de la Universitat de Barcelona Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [viii] Garcia et al [2005] Authors and collaboration came from the following institutions The Open Tropical Forage- Animal Production Laboratory (OTF-APL) Universidade Estadual do Santa Cruz Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [ix] Garcia et al [2005] The financing of the “Faune Sauvage” Project in French Guyana came from the following French Institutions LA REGION GUYANE Le FCR LE CNES Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [x] Garcia et al [2005] DEDICATION To: JOAO (NETO) BATISTA BARRETO (JBB) and all Peccary Lovers, Producers and Consumers, past, present and future Figure 1 JOAO (NETO) Batista Barreto (JBB) and his favourite Peccasow (female Peccary) Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xi] Garcia et al [2005] Acknowledgements We acknowledge the encouragement and support received by the wildlife researchers and the Open Tropical Forage-Animal Production Laboratory [OTF-APL] over the years and all of the Staff of the Department of Food Production particularly Professor Richard A.I. Brathwaite (former head of Department), Mrs. Margaret Maxwell, Miss Andrea Houston (who also slaved for us in doing the final layout), Miss Deniece Deane, Mrs. Gail Lawrence-Alexis, Mr. Albert Joseph, Mrs. Radickha Persad, and Mr. Seemungal Deosaran. Thanks must also go to the Staff of the Wildlife Section, Forestry Department, within the different Ministries that have been responsible for Forestry and the Environment in the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago over the last decade. The appreciation of the continued encouragement of Mr. Terry Sampson of the Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension of The UWI must also be expressed as well as the Library Staff of the UWI Main Library St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago [in particular Miss Kamla Bahadoor, Library Assistant and Ms. Sharida Hosein, Librarian, Agriculture and Life Sciences Division]. Thanks must also be extended to the Management and Staff of the Emperor Valley Zoo, Trinidad, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago and to Mrs. Kay Kenyon Librarian, Smithsonian Library, National Zoo, Washington, D.C. and the Library Staff at the San Diego Zoo. The first author must also acknowledge some early supportive communication with Professor Emeritus Sowls of Texas A&M University, who is considered by many to be “lumbar vertebrae” of Peccary research. Thanks must also be extended to all those hunters in Trinidad and Tobago [in particular the South Eastern Hunters Association of Trinidad and Tobago] and all the wildlife farmers [too numerous to mention] who willingly shared their experiences with us. In addition Mr. Vernon Persad of Persad’s Supermarket in Rio Claro and Mr. Trevor Rattansingh of the Triangle Supermarket in Chase Village must also be thanked for sharing with us their wildlife marketing experience. The Pro-Vice Chancellor Dr. Bhoendradatt Tewarie, the Principal of the St Augustine Campus of the University of the West Indies, must be particularly singled out for having given his full endorsement and support to the collaborative initiative between INRA Antilles-Guyane, La Chambre de l’Agriculture de la Guyane and the OTF-APL of the UWI, St Augustine. In French Guiana special thanks must be paid to Monsieur Patrick La branche [President of “La Chambre d’Agriculture de la Guyane”] and Monsieur Robert Cibrelius [Conseil de Service d’Agriculture du Conseil Régional de la Guyane] for their encouragement and interest in the Peccary. The staff of La Chambre de l’Agriculture de la Guyane must also all be thanked for their support (Monsieurs Daniel Bereau, Thierry Adjovi, Olivier Latellier, Thierry Basso, Jean-Claude Azema, Samuel Assemat, and Madame Marie-Josée Charlec). The hardworking team at the “Station Experimentale de Soucoumou” must be specially acknowledged (Mr. Julien Moze, Miss. Karine Rinna, Mr. Bruno Brevet, Mr. Patrick Francis, Mr. Sylvain Telasco, Mr. Richard Pruyckemaker, Mr. Juste Chinot, Mr. Effeia Abaila and Mr. Lois Pindard). Special thanks must also go to Dr. Cecile Richard-Hansen of “l’Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage de la Guyane” for her willingness to exchange ideas and share information with us. Monsieur Alain Neyrat the wildlife lover of French Guiana must also be singled out for willingness to share his experiences on the peccary with us. A warm expression of thanks must also be given to the staff of the French Embassy in Trinidad and Tobago, in particular the former ambassador His Excellency Monsieur Alain Girma, Monsieur Francis Courbin [former Deputy Head of Mission], His Excellency Charley Causeret [present Ambassador], Monsieur Jean-Christophe Fleury [Deputy Head of Mission], Madame Marie Abdullah [Visa Officer] and Madame Rebecca Balin [Press Secretary]. They were instrumental in making the collaboration between the French institutions [INRA Antilles-Guyane and La Chambre de l’Agriculture de la Guyane] and the OTF-APL of the UWI bear fruit, through facilitating the ease of movement of the UWI team Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xii] Garcia et al [2005] between Trinidad and Tobago and French Guyana. It has been due to this collaboration that contact was made with the other contributing authors from France, Brazil, Peru and Spain. This has enriched the content, both practical and academic, of this book/ booklet. Monsieur Jean-Pierre Mahoue and Madamoselle Rita Schneida of the Alliance Français must also be thanked for their language training support. Mr. George Ramos of the Brazilian Embassy in Trinidad and Tobago must also be thanked for translating the peccary recipes from Portuguese into English. Our appreciation must also go to the members of the team of Sergio Nogueira at the Universidade Estadual do Santa Cruz, Bahia, Brazil. Thanks must also be extended to Dr. Keith Archibald (Chairman of the Board of the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute), Professor Emeritus of Livestock Science Holman E. Williams (UWI) for his foreword and for his extensive editorial comments, and to Professor Emeritus of Crop Science Lawrence A. Wilson (UWI) for his continued encouragement and intellectual support. A special gratitude must also be extended to Miss. Angela Sybil Garcia [mother of the first author] for tirelessly reading and correcting all the versions of this document without any compensation. We would also like to thank the pioneering Peccary farmer, JOAO (NETO) BATISTA BARRETO (JBB): Rua Prof. Joel Lopes No 443, IRECE, BAHIA, BRAZIL, one of those farmers who has helped to open our eyes and this has enabled us to show the world that the peccary (a signature Neo-tropical wildlife species) is on the verge or being fully conserved and domesticated. Some specific acknowledgements from the first author: I would like to genuinely state my admiration to all the collaborators and authors of this document for the commitment that they all have exhibited to their work on the Peccary and other Neo-tropical wildlife species. I have been truly impressed by the ease with which you have all been willing to share your information with me that was written in Spanish, French, Portuguese and English. What I found most remarkable was the Doctoral Thesis of Pedro Mayor Aparicio that was written in a Spanish language framework but which included scientific papers written in English and Spanish, as well as his having done his work with French-Spanish and Portuguese- speaking collaborators. I know that we are all “aficionados de/do/of animales silvestres/animals salvaje/animaux sauvauges/animais silvestres/wild animals” of the Neo-tropics. This is in keeping with the true spirit of the Open Tropical Forage-Animal Production Laboratory [OTF- APL] and the Open School of Tropical Animal Science and Production [OSTAS&P]. I also wish to acknowledge the UWI Credit Union for taking a risk in loaning me (for the second time) the money to publish a book on wildlife; and last but certainly not least I must personally thank Mr. Ronnie Chaitoo of TRINPAD Limited for his commitment and support towards this work. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xiii] Garcia et al [2005] Welcome The Honourable Penelope Beckles: Minister of Public Utilities and the Environment of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xiv] Garcia et al [2005] WELCOME ADDRESS BY THE HONOURABLE PENNELOPE BECKLES MINISTER OF PUBLIC UTILITIES AND THE ENVIRONMENT. ADDRESS FOR THE LAUNCH OF BOOKLET AND PRODUCERS’ MANUAL ON THE COLLARED PECCARY Mr. Chairman, Emeritus Professor Lawrence A Wilson, Members of the Diplomatic Corp-., Ambassador to Brazil, Mrs. Gilda Maria Ramos Guimaraes; Ambassador to France, Mr. Charley Causeret; Dr. Gary Wayne Garcia, Author and Senior Lecturer in Animal Production, Department of Food Production, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies; Ms. Gail Young Co–author; Ms. Nadra Nathai-Gyan, Head of Wildlife Section; Specially Invited Guests; Members of the Media; Ladies and Gentlemen Good morning and a warm welcome to all. It is indeed an honour and a privilege to be invited to address you on the official launching of the Booklet and Producers’ Manual on the Collared Peccary. At the onset, let me extend my sincere appreciation to the University of the West Indies and to Dr. Gary Wayne Garcia, Author and Senior Lecturer in Animal Production, for this opportunity to welcome you and to share a few thoughts on the topic with you. Just about one year ago, specifically on July 6th 2004, the University of the West Indies invited me to launch the Booklet and Producers’ Manual on the Agouti. Dr. Gary Garcia, principal author described that publication as the first in a series of Manuals on our indigenous terrestrial fauna, focusing on the game species. Today, Dr. Garcia has made good on his promise and we are here to launch the second Manual, which addresses the Collared Peccary, As Minister with responsibility for Public Utilities and the Environment under which wildlife protection and management fall, you can well imagine my pleasure to be a part of this exercise. The launching of this manual brings into focus the words of Kofi Annan, Secretary General of the United Nations in his message at the launching of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Synthesis Report, Quote: “Only by understanding the environment and how it works, can we make the necessary decisions to protect it. Only by valuing all our precious natural and human resources can we hope to build a sustainable future”. End Quote. The publication of this manual must be placed in that context of the importance of understanding and valuing, Wildlife Stock Management, Hunting, Development of Rural Wildlife Farming Industry, and Wildlife Research in our twin islands. Or, to put it in another way, understanding the socio-economic contribution of wildlife to the sustainable development of the country. Over the years, the rich biological diversity of our two islands has been well documented and so too has the challenges that our growing population has imposed on that once pristine natural environment. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xv] Garcia et al [2005] The demands that are being made by the population directly on our wildlife resources are by no means a recent phenomenon. The records show that as far back as 1933 the authorities being cognizant of the need to control the activities of hunters in the forests approved Legislation for the management of the Wild life population. You know this as the Conservation of Wildlife Act. The enactment of the legislation, paved the way for the setting aside of areas of forests for the conservation of wildlife and in 1934, the first Wildlife Game Sanctuary was established to serve as a refuge for the game animals. Today there are thirteen such sanctuaries strategically located throughout Trinidad and Tobago While the sanctuaries have provided a refuge for the game animals in the country the present indications are that the populations are under tremendous stress mainly because of the removal of forest vegetation and the concomitant loss of wildlife habitat. As a result the animals are deprived of food, protection and breeding areas, important factors which contribute to their well being and survival. Over the years Trinidad and Tobago has basically adopted two approaches to wildlife management; the first deals with the protection of individual species and populations; and the second, with the protection of the habitats in which the species live. Inherent in these two approaches are the legal protection for the species; management plans for their protection and ex-situ conservation. The country has been practicing the former technique through our Legislative Acts and the selection of Wildlife Sanctuaries. During the past twenty years the Ministry’s Wildlife Section has been assisting members of communities throughout the nation in wildlife farming. This programme embraces the concepts of ex-situ conservation and the two hundred and thirty plus (230+) wildlife farmers who are registered with the Wildlife Section reflects the success of this programme. This manual like its predecessor provides us all, the farmers, the lovers of wildlife, the students and the scientists with the knowledge that is required to ensure good and safe husbandry of the animal in captivity. Through the application of sound and scientific approach to wildlife farming, not only would wild-meat be easily available during the open season, but the conservation objective of releasing excess stock into the forest can be realized. I wish to recommend this publication to the citizens of our nation and especially the staff at the Wildlife Section, Forestry Division as they continue in their efforts to encourage wildlife farming of the Peccary and other game species. I take this opportunity to thank the University of the West Indies for inviting me to share my thoughts with you, and to heartily congratulate all who have been involved with this very timely publication. I need hardly remind you, that like you, I am looking forward to the future publications. I welcome you, I thank you for your attention and I wish you well. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xvi] Garcia et al [2005] Foreword According to Genesis, in the Bible, God created earth, water, light, vegetation, the sun, swarms of living creatures in the waters, birds, earth-creatures according to their kinds: cattle, creeping things, and beasts, and man, the last being given dominion over the fish of the sea, birds of the air, and cattle and every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth, as well as all the earth. If this was the beginning then the order of creation is instructive and the responsibility of man (and woman) is awesome. How have we discharged our dominion over the animals which cohabit the earth with us? A 1958 report stated that, of approximately one hundred and six (106) species or sub-species of world mammals which have become extinct world-wide over the past two thousand (2,000) years, as many as forty-one (41) forms belong to the West Indies (which is part of the Neo-tropics) exclusively. For instance, the edible frog, known as the “mountain chicken”, is no longer found in St Kitts and the Leeward Islands and the edible iguana is extinct in St Kitts-Nevis. Imagine, some Atlantic fish are in jeopardy and some European fishermen are seeking new careers. Prior to the arrival of Columbus in the New World, the American Indian in the Caribbean lived handsomely and harmoniously off of his domain. Early European settlers in the West Indies lived on “native foods” as well – iguana, turtle, agouti, peccary, etc. Later, the added slave population and monoculture of sugarcane tipped the West Indies into a dependency on imported human (and animal) foods. A writer has designated Trinidad a “continental island”, with similar fauna to that of the nearby mainland from where caimans, lizards, snakes, fresh water turtles, and capybaras arrive from time to time when the Orinoco floods. Birds fly over. Most of the rest of the West Indies are “ocean islands” with much less fauna. I have not seen data which suggest that wild animals in Trinidad are in jeopardy but we should be alert to their welfare. Forest and hillside fires, illegal logging, cultivation of illegal crops in slashed forested areas, trap guns, and clearing for industrialization encroach on our precious wild cohabitants. This document has gathered and illustrated valuable information about the collared peccary in particular. The proposal herein for its culture is a responsible one regarding the management of this valuable resource which, incidentally, is not as docile and easily prone to predial larceny as small ruminants and the agouti. In the long term, peccaries of superior qualities can be selected and bred on diets formulated to meet the various physiological requirements in conditions of greater comfort, hygiene, and health to match modern intensive swine production. If and when we arrive at the prospect of export, Trinidad & Tobago is free from the major communicable exotic diseases which hinder trade in livestock and livestock products in many countries, with the peccary. The educational dimension of this document is not limited to the peccary producer, as the title suggests; it should extend to every local school library. We look forward to the promise, of this excellent endeavour, of similar documents in preparation on other wild animals here, in our domain, which deserve our attention. Holman E Williams, DVM, M.Sc, (Wisc.), Ph.D. (Edin.), MRCVS Professor Emeritus of Livestock Science UWI, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago 2004 September 01 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xvii] Garcia et al [2005] TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION ..................................................................................................... XI WELCOME ....................................................................................................... XIV FOREWORD ................................................................................................................ XVII INTRODUCTION AND HOW TO USE THIS BOOKLET ...................................... 32 How could you use this booklet? ........................................................................................................33 PART 1 ................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................ 35 THREATS TO WILDLIFE AND WILDLIFE FARMING IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN .............................................................................................. 35 THREATS TO THE PECCARY AND WILDLIFE IN GENERAL WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO THE NEO-TROPICS [Caribbean, Central and South America] ..........36 1. ................................................................................................................ Human/Biotic Factors 36 2. ......................................................................................................................................... Pollution 36 3. ............................................................................................................................ Climate Change 36 SUMMARY OF SOLUTIONS FOR THE PRESERVATION AND UTILIZATION OF NEO-TROPICAL WILDLIFE ...........................................................................................................37 A STRATEGY FOR WILDLIFE UTILIZATION IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN ..........................................................................................................................................37 A STRATEGY FOR WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN FRENCH GUIANA .............. 37 THE NORTH AMERICAN APPROACH ......................................................................................38 A STRATEGY FOR TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO [A SMALL ISLAND STATE] .........38 THE PROBLEM WITH REGARD TO NEO-TROPICAL WILDLIFE ...............................41 THE SOLUTIONS: THE APPROACH OF THE OPEN SCHOOL OF TROPICAL ANIMAL SCIENCE AND PRODUCTION [OSTAS&P] .........................................................44 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xviii] Garcia et al [2005] THE ASSUMPTIONS OF THE OSTAS&P REGARDING NEO-TROPICAL ANIMAL PRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 44 THE PHILOSPOHY OF THE OSTAS&P .....................................................................................44 THE WAY FORWARD BEYOND THE YEAR 2004: HOW SHOULD PEOPLE WHO SUBSCRIBE TO THE OSTAS&P PROCEED ............................................................................45 THE SUGGESTED APPROACH BY THE OSTAS&P .................................................. 45 THE RESOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM: TASIN ....................................................................46 THE NEW HORIZONS ................................................................................................... 46 The Value of Wildlife ............................................................................................................................47 THE INITIATIVES WITH WILDLIFE FARMING IN FRENCH GUIANA OF THE CHAMBRE D’AGRICULTURE DE LA GUYANE .......................................................................51 WORK IN BRAZIL WITH PECCARIES ............................................................... 54 THE WORK IN PERU AT IQUITOS IN THE AMAZON ....................................... 55 COLLABORATIVE WORK ON THE PECCARY IN SOUTH AMERICA ................. 55 PART 2 ......................................................................................................... 59 ARYANN’S QUESTIONS ABOUT THE PECCARY ............................................ 59 What type of animal is the Peccary? .................................................................................................60 Where are peccaries found? .............................................................................................. 60 In what year was the Peccary discovered? ......................................................................................60 Do these animals grow continuously? ..............................................................................................60 Does it bite or is it dangerous? .......................................................................................... 60 What is the color of the Peccary? ..................................................................................... 61 What ways can be used to catch a Peccary? ..................................................................... 61 A Peccary can be hand caught ONLY if it is very young (almost newborn). Otherwise they can be caught using robust nets or baited cages with trap gates. .............................. 61 Why does it have such a complicated name? ..................................................................................62 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xix] Garcia et al [2005] How does it make its young and how many does it make? .............................................. 64 Where does it eat? ...................................................................................................................................66 When does it eat? .............................................................................................................. 66 What does it eat? .....................................................................................................................................66 How does it digest its food? .................................................................................................................66 PART 3 ............................................................................................................................ 68 A SCIENTIFIC REVIEW OF THE PECCARY ............................................................. 68 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 69 CLASSIFICATION & NAMES ........................................................................................................69 Artiodactyla ..............................................................................................................................................70 Suiformes ..................................................................................................................................................70 Suidae .......................................................................................................................................................70 [Pigs] .......................................................................................................................................................70 TYPES/ SUB SPECIES ........................................................................................................................71 DISTRIBUTION ....................................................................................................................................71 APPEARANCE ................................................................................................................ 72 Description ........................................................................................................................ 72 Pelage .......................................................................................................................................................72 Body size ...................................................................................................................................................72 ADAPTATION TO AMBIENT TEMPERATURE .....................................................................73 DIET AND NUTRITION IN GENERAL .......................................................................................74 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM .........................................................................................................................74 Dentition ....................................................................................................................................................74 Oesophagus................................................................................................................................................76 Stomach .....................................................................................................................................................76 The rest of the Digestive System ........................................................................................................79 NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS .........................................................................................................79 REPRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 81 Males .......................................................................................................................................................81 Females ............................................................................................................................. 81 Breedin .......................................................................................................................................................81 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xx] Garcia et al [2005] Gestation .....................................................................................................................................................82 Post-partum Heat [Post partum estrus] ............................................................................................82 Litter Size ...................................................................................................................................................83 Lactation ....................................................................................................................................................83 Weaning .....................................................................................................................................................86 HOUSING AND ENCLOSURES .....................................................................................................86 BEHAVIOUR ..........................................................................................................................................87 RESTRAINT AND HANDLING ......................................................................................................88 HEALTH AND DISEASE ..................................................................................................................89 TRADE STATUS ...................................................................................................................................95 THE CASE FOR A PRODUCTION MODEL ..............................................................................96 Characteristics ..........................................................................................................................................97 CONCLUDING COMMENTS AND RECOMMENDTIONS ................................................98 PART 4 ............................................................................................................... 99 THE COLLARED PECCARY PRODUCTION MANUAL ...................................... 99 [A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR INTENSIVE COLLARED PECCARY PRODUCTION]HOW TO START SETTING UP AN ............................................. 99 HOW TO START SETTING UP AN ........................................................................... 100 INTENSIVE COLLARED PECCARY PRODUCTION SYSTEM .......................... 100 Some Considerations before Setting up a Wildlife/ Non-domestic Animal Production Unit .....................................................................................................................................................100 The Principles behind setting up an Intensive Animal Production System .........................101 The Factors Affecting Animal/ Livestock Production ...............................................................101 Physiological States .............................................................................................................................102 The effect of the Factors Affecting Animal Production on Wild Animals Reared in Captivity: .................................................................................................................................................103 Intensive Animal Production Systems ............................................................................................103 Intensification ........................................................................................................................................103 Features of intensification ..................................................................................................................103 The Implications of Intensification on Production ......................................................................103 The Role of Housing and Equipment under intensive systems of production ....................104 Approaches to Developing Animal Production Systems/Concepts in Developing Intensive Animal Species Production Modeling .........................................................................104 Considerations for species production modeling .........................................................................105 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xxi] Garcia et al [2005] THE OBJECTIVES OF THE PECCARY PRODUCTION SYSTEM .................................108 THE LIFE CYCLE OF THE PECCARY ......................................................................................108 THE PHYSIOLOGICAL STATES OF THE QUENK/PECCARY ......................................108 PRODUCTION UNITS ......................................................................................................................109 HERD PROJECTIONS ......................................................................................................................112 BACKGROUND TO THE PECCARY PRODUCTION MODEL .......................................119 Target Performance Coefficients for the Quenk or Collared Peccary ...................................120 SOME HUSBANDRY PRACTICES AND GUIDELINES ...................................................121 [A] Practical Peccary Housing ..........................................................................................................121 [B] Peccary Restraint in the Farm Situation .................................................................................121 [C] Practical Peccary Feeding ...........................................................................................................127 [D] Breeding and Culling Practices .................................................................................................127 [E] Daily Routines ................................................................................................................................129 [F] Monthly Routines ..........................................................................................................................129 [G] Seasonal Routines .........................................................................................................................129 [H] Occasional Routines .....................................................................................................................129 [I] Animal Handling and Restraint ..................................................................................................130 PART 5 ............................................................................................................. 135 A VISITS TO PECCARY FARMS ...................................................................... 135 Collared Peccaries ................................................................................................................................138 White Lipped Peccaries ......................................................................................................................138 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION (ELEMENTS) OF THE ENCLOSURES ..................... 138 VISIT TO PECCARY FARM: JOAO (NETO) BATISTA BARRETO (JBB) .................141 WELCOME! ..........................................................................................................................................159 BACKGROUND: .................................................................................................................................159 LOCATION AND CLIMATE: ........................................................................................................161 APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF ANIMALS FARMED: ........................................................161 FARM SIZE: .................................................................................................................... 162 FARM ACTIVITIES: ...................................................................................................... 162 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xxii] Garcia et al [2005] ANIMAL HOUSING and ANIMAL: LAND RATIO: ..............................................................162 FEEDS AND FEEDING: ...................................................................................................................163 BREEDING: ..........................................................................................................................................163 PART 6 ............................................................................................................. 175 PECCARY UTILIZATION ................................................................................. 175 [THE CONVERSION OF PECCARY TO MEAT & PECCARY CUISINE] .............. 175 6.1 NEO-TROPICAL WILDLIFE CUISINE ..............................................................................176 6.2 THE DEMAND FOR THE MEAT OF THE PECCARY AND OTHER NEO- TROPICAL WILDLIFE [La Viande Gibier/ Carne de Monte/ Wild-meat] .......................179 6.2.1 Information from a remote area in Brazil 179 SPECIES ........................................................................................................... 179 6.2.2 Information on the Wildlife Industry in Trinidad and Tobago [A Small Twin Island Caribbean State] ......................................................................................................180 6.2.2.1 THE METHODOLOGY USED IN DEVELOPING THE MODEL OF THE WILDLIFE INDUSTRY IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO .......................................... 182 6.2.2.2 THE INDUSTRY FINDINGS .................................................................... 183 SEASON ........................................................................................................... 185 SEASON ........................................................................................................... 186 SPECIES SOLD ................................................................................................. 186 AGOUTI ........................................................................................................... 186 LIZARD ............................................................................................................ 186 6.2.3 Wildlife Utilization by Restaurants in French Guyana 195 6.2.4 Wild Meat Sale and Marketing to the Public 198 6.3 THE CONVERSION OF ANIMALS’ MUSCLE TO MEAT .................................. 204 Conversion of Animals’ Muscle to Meat: The Harvesting of Muscle from Animals .......204 Ante Mortem [AM] Inspection ......................................................................................... 204 Animal Slaughter ..................................................................................................................................204 Post Mortem [PM] Inspection ...........................................................................................................204 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xxiii] Garcia et al [2005] Living muscle tissue ............................................................................................................................205 The muscle tissue after exsanguinations [bleeding] ........................................................ 205 Effect of pH on meat quality - water-holding ...............................................................................209 6.4 THE CONVERSION OF PECCARY ANIMAL TO MEAT .............................. 210 6.4.1 Peccary Slaughter and Dressing .......................................................................................210 Animal Carcass Fabrication: ............................................................................................................216 6.6 PECCARY CUISINE ............................................................................................... 217 PART 7 ............................................................................................................. 230 SOME COMMENTS ON WHAT RESEARCH STILL NEEDS TO BE DONE WITH THE PECCARY ................................................................................................ 230 PART 9 ............................................................................................................. 237 LITERATURE CONSULTED ...................................................................................... 237 LITERATURE CONSULTED ............................................................................. 238 NOTES: ............................................................................................................ 249 COMMENTS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR THE AUTHORS 250 SECTION FOR REVIEWERS’ COMMENTS 251 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xxiv] Garcia et al [2005] LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 JOAO (NETO) Batista Barreto (JBB) and his favourite Peccasow (female Peccary)............................................................................................................ xi Figure 2: Peccary Breeding Colony at the Emperor Valley Zoo in Trinidad and Tobago, W.I. ................................................................................................................. 40 Figure 3: A conceptual framework for the formation of a Tropical Animal Science Integrated Network (TASIN) .......................................................................... 42 Figure 4: Soucoumou Experimental Station................................................................... 53 Figure 5: Integrated Aquaculture, Atipa or Cascadura (Haplosternum littorale) and Muscovy Duck Production at Soucoumou Experimental Station in 2003 ..... 53 Figure 6: Granny Angela, Great Grandma Mildred, Anais Garcia and Aryann Garcia at right ................................................................................................................. 59 Figure 7: Peccary Dentition [Mr. Neto of Bahia, Brazil showing the four canines of his favorite Peccary on his 5 hectare Peccary Farm that contains about 450 animals of all ages and sexes] ......................................................................... 61 Figure 8: White Lipped Peccary [Tayassu pecari] ......................................................... 63 Figure 9: A Peccary Female [Peccasow] suckling its two newborn peccaries [Peccasuckling] [Source: Hugo Galvez] ......................................................... 64 Figure 10: A Peccary having a meal whole pumpkins and green bananas at the Emperor Valley Zoo in Trinidad and Tobago................................................................ 66 Figure 11: Peccaries having a meal of cassava forage and banana pseudostems in French Guiana ............................................................................................................. 67 Figure 14: Normal dentition of the adult collared peccary and system of labelling the ndividual teeth ................................................................................................. 75 Figure 15: Collared peccaries in concrete pens in Mausica, Trinidad, Trinidad and Tobago. ........................................................................................................... 87 Figure 16: Restraint of collared peccaries using hog snare consisting of a small cable inserted in a hollow pipe, with a loop at one end inserted behind the upper canine teeth and pulled taut............................................................................. 88 Figure 17: A collared peccary colony in French Guyana at Neyrant Sawmill. ................ 90 Figure 18: IBAMA in Amazonas, Brazil ........................................................................ 100 Figure 19: Concepts for developing an animal production system for any species........ 107 Figure 20: The Life Cycle of the Peccary ....................................................................... 108 Figure 22: Six Years Peccary Herd Projections beginning with 8 Peccasows and 2 Peccarams ..................................................................................................... 112 Figure 23: A conceptual floor plan layout for an intensive Peccary Production unit. .... 114 Figure 24: A Grassed Semi-intensive Production Pen for collared peccaries in Brazil [UESC] using chain linked fencing .............................................................. 115 Figure 25: A Grassed Semi-intensive Production Pens for collared peccaries in Brazil [UESC] using chain linked fencing .............................................................. 116 Figure 26: A large dirt collared peccary enclosure in the dry area of Irece Bahia ......... 116 Figure 27: Aspects of old experimental peccary Housing at Soucoumou in French Guiana ........................................................................................................... 117 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xxv] Garcia et al [2005] Figure 28: A Semi -intensive enclosure for peccaries on display at the Emperor Valley Zoo, Trinidad and Tobago ............................................................................ 118 Figure 29: Farmer enclosure [Semi-intensive system] in French Guiana ....................... 118 Figure 30: A Proposed Floor Plan for Unit 1: Breeding Unit [Intensive Group Housing] ....................................................................................................................... 119 Figure 31: Practical Peccary water Troughs at Mr. Neto’s Farm in Bahia, Brazil. ........ 122 Figure 32: Details of Peccary Corrals and Chute [Mr. Neto Farm, Bahia, Brazil] ......... 123 Figure 33: Aspects of Peccary Semi-extensive Enclosures at Monsieur Neyrat in French Guiana [1. Chute; 2. Feediong Area; 3. Fenceline towards the outside; 4. Fenceline towards the inside of the enclosure that consists of a wooded hillside; 5. Mr. Cicero Lallo (the UWI), Mr. Neyrat (Pilot Peccary Farmer in French Guiana) Miss Gail Young (Chambre d’ Agriculture & UWI); 6. Fenceline towards the roadside].................................................................... 124 Figure 34: Dimension of a Net [Source: Rengifo Pinedo and Navarro Torres (2002)] .. 126 Figure 35: Capture & Restraint with Net [Source; Rengifo Pinedo and Navarro Torres (2002)]........................................................................................................... 126 Figure 36: Transportation crates used to transport the peccaries at Monsieur Neyrat in French Guiana ............................................................................................... 130 Figure 37: Wooden Restraining Cage or Crush for the collard peccary [Entrance View] ....................................................................................................................... 131 Figure 38: Wooden Restraining Cage or Crush for the collard peccary [Side view] ..... 131 Figure 39: Wooden Restraining Cage or Crush for the collard peccary [Side View with Cage on a Poatform Scale] ............................................................................ 131 Figure 40: Wooden Restraining Cage or Crush for the collared peccary [Closeup Side View]............................................................................................................. 131 Figure 41: Plastic ear applied to the right side of a female peccary ............................... 132 Figure 42: Injecting a female peccary with a tranquilizer in the restraining crate ......... 132 Figure 43: Tranquilized females recovering in a feeding pen ........................................ 132 Figure 44: Tranquilized females recovering in a feeding pen ........................................ 132 Figure 45: Feeding pen opening into the corral and holding area .................................. 133 Figure 46: Tranquilized female recovering in a feeding pen .......................................... 133 Figure 47: View from the holding pen leading to the corral and into the Feeding pen .. 133 Figure 48: Side view of the corral from the Feeding pen into the holding area ............. 133 Figure 49: Plastic Ear tag Applicator and Plastic Ear tag ............................................... 134 Figure 50: Plastic Ear tag Applicator and Plastic Ear tag ............................................... 134 Figure 51: UESC Experimental Farm ............................................................................. 137 Figure 52: Visitors to UESC Farm.................................................................................. 137 Figure 53: Net for Peccary Restraint .............................................................................. 137 Figure 54: Restraining a Peccary with a Net .................................................................. 137 Figure 55: A Restrained Peccary .................................................................................... 137 Figure 56: Handling of a restrained Peccary................................................................... 137 Figure 57: Restraining Crush .......................................................................................... 140 Figure 58: Crush Use ..................................................................................................... 140 Figure 59: Crush All the Way in .................................................................................... 140 Figure 60: Crush Side View ............................................................................................ 140 Figure 61: Crush Handle ................................................................................................. 140 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xxvi] Garcia et al [2005] Figure 62: Crush Overview ............................................................................................. 140 Figure 63: Vote of thanks for the Visit ........................................................................... 141 Figure 64: Peccaries feeding along the grain trail on the red earth soil. ......................... 142 Figure 65: Rough Plan of Mr. Barreto’s Peccary Farm, Icere, Bahia, Brazil, July 2003. ....................................................................................................................... 143 Figure 66: Wooden fence with electric fencing on the inside. ..................................... 144 Figure 67: Fencing arrangements showing the red plastic box protecting the electric fencing impulse generator. ............................................................................ 144 Figure 68: Base of a tree being protected by a metal barrel. .......................................... 145 Figure 69: Shrubs not eaten by the peccaries being used as shading in one of the enclosures. ..................................................................................................... 145 Figure 70: Peccaries adjacent to the pond....................................................................... 146 Figure 71: Older brick water tank and drinking trough that is about 15 cms wide, the young sometimes fall into this trough. .......................................................... 146 Figure 72: Concerte trough 10cms wide and somewhat high to prevent the young from falling in, the float valve is protected in the background. ............................. 146 Figure 73: Grain stored in barrels within the feeding area. ............................................ 147 Figure 74: Cactus [rachette] in trailers............................................................................ 147 Figure 75: Melons in trailers. .......................................................................................... 148 Figure 76: The spacing between the verticals in the creep feeding area is about 12 cm 148 Figure 77: Side view of the creep feeding area. ............................................................. 148 Figure 78: Front view of the Creep feeding area ............................................................ 149 Figure 79: Hinged main gate........................................................................................... 149 Figure 80: Guillotine gate with a vertical lever .............................................................. 150 Figure 81: Guillotine gate with a rope and pulley .......................................................... 150 Figure 82: Main Corral ................................................................................................... 150 Figure 83: Chute ............................................................................................................. 150 Figure 84: End of Chute, Crush and Transport box. ....................................................... 151 Figure 85: Use of Bamboo in Corral Construction and manual guillotine gate. ............ 151 Figure 86: Top view of crush. ......................................................................................... 151 Figure 87: Side view of Crush ........................................................................................ 151 Figure 88: Front view of crush........................................................................................ 152 Figure 89: Restraining an animal in the crush ................................................................ 152 Figure 90: Applying an ear tag to an animal restrained within the crush. ...................... 152 Figure 91: Guillotine gate entrance................................................................................. 153 Figure 92: Swing gate at side of the wooden chute ........................................................ 153 Figure 93: Top view of the chute .................................................................................... 153 Figure 94: Guillotine gate at side of the chute ................................................................ 153 Figure 95: Wooden Crush area ....................................................................................... 153 Figure 96: Wooden Crush ............................................................................................... 153 Figure 97: Details of Wooden transport Box .................................................................. 154 Figure 98: Details of the Sliding door of the wooden transport box. ............................. 154 Figure 99: Area showing toilet adjacent to the sleeping area ......................................... 155 Figure 100: Toilet area .................................................................................................... 155 Figure 101: Spreading the grain in trails......................................................................... 156 Figure 102: Animals feeding along the trails .................................................................. 156 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xxvii] Garcia et al [2005] Figure 103: Animals following the farmer at the feeding trails...................................... 156 Figure 104: Animals eating the melons and distributed grains....................................... 156 Figure 105: Animals entering the feeding yard .............................................................. 156 Figure 106: Animals feeding freely without any signs of true aggression ..................... 156 Figure 107: A 25 year old Peccary Female [Peccasow] ................................................. 157 Figure 108: Over 50 peccaries feeding in the main feeding area and overnight pen ...... 158 Figure 109: Welcome Discussions.................................................................................. 159 Figure 110: Entrance to ZOOCRIADERO BIOAM ....................................................... 160 Figure 111: Entrance to the Farm ................................................................................... 161 Figure 112: Entrance to the higher end of the valley where the pens are located .......... 163 Figure 113: View of the pens from one side of the valley .............................................. 164 Figure 114: View of the pens down in the valley ........................................................... 164 Figure 115: Close up view of two capybara breeding pens with the pond and aquatic plants in the middle of both pens .................................................................. 165 Figure 116: View of the pens down the middle of the valley showing the ponds in the middle ........................................................................................................... 165 Figure 117: View from the lower end of the valley showing the water flowing down through a pipe in the middle of the foreground and flowing into a larger pen with the growing aquatic plants. ................................................................... 166 Figure 118: View of a peccary pen highlighting minimal removal of trees to maintain cover .............................................................................................................. 166 Figure 119: View of a peccary pen at the extremity of the clearing highlighting minimal removal of trees to maintain the forest microclimate ................................... 167 Figure 120: View downwards into the valley from the pen shown in Figure 119 ......... 167 Figure 121: View into the pens from the side noting extensive use of forest raw materials for pen construction ...................................................................................... 168 Figure 122: A platform on the ridged side of a peccary pen .......................................... 168 Figure 123: Looking down into the Peccary pen ............................................................ 169 Figure 124: Fresh water conch [Pomacea urceus] being grown in an artificially constructed pond/ dam .................................................................................. 169 Figure 125: View of the conch growing chambers made of wire mesh in the artificial pond or dam .................................................................................................. 170 Figure 126: Side view of the pond or dam head made from an earth embankment and a row of concrete blocks. ................................................................................. 170 Figure 127: An individual grown crate for the river conch ............................................ 171 Figure 128: Organic Chicken Production ....................................................................... 171 Figure 129: Eating facilities of the Eco-tourism Facility with Wooden logs for the stools and five cms thick wooden discs for plates .................................................. 172 Figure 130: Earth Oven at the Eco-tourism Facility ....................................................... 172 Figure 131: Capybara Growing pen ................................................................................ 173 Figure 132: Adjacent Capybara Pens .............................................................................. 173 Figure 133: Small peccary breeding pen containing covered feed troughs and isolation area ................................................................................................................ 174 Figure 134: A Schematic Representation of the Ethnocuisineology Concept ................ 177 Figure 135: Madame Remylienne SAIBOU, Kourou, La Guyanne Francaise............... 178 Figure 136: Location of Amazonian Rain Forest Sites censured by Peres (2000) ......... 180 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xxviii] Garcia et al [2005] Figure 137: Diagram of the Wildlife Industry in Trinidad and Tobago; EVZ – Emperor Valley Zoo; OTFAPL – Open Tropical Forage Animal Production Laboratory; FD – Forestry Division of the Ministry of Agriculture ............. 184 Figure 138: Urban setting for a Wild Meat Que [Bar B Q] in Trinidad ......................... 191 Figure 139: Advertisement for a Wild Meat Que [Bar B Q] in an urban area in Trinidad ....................................................................................................................... 192 Figure 140: Details of the advertisement for a Wild Meat Que [Bar B Q] in an urban area in Trinidad ..................................................................................................... 192 Figure 141: Cooking of Wild Meat Que [Bar B Q] in an urban area in Trinidad .......... 193 Figure 142: The Presentation of Cooked Wild Meat at a Wild Meat Que [Bar B Q] in an urban area in Trinidad ................................................................................... 193 Figure 143: The served Wild Meat Que [Bar B Q] in an urban area in Trinidad [cooked mixed wild meat stew served with boiled dasheen (Clocasia esculenta (L.) Schott.) and Cassava (Manihot esculenta)] .................................................. 194 Figure 144: Schematics of the actors in the trade in Neo-tropical Wild Meat in French Guiana ........................................................................................................... 196 Figure 145: Cut up Agouti being sold in Persaud’s Supermarket in Rio Claro, Trinidad and Tobago.................................................................................................... 199 Figure 146: Smoked Armadillo [Dasypus novemcintus] being sold in the Saint Laurent market in French Guyana .............................................................................. 200 Figure 147: Smoked fresh water fish being sold in the Saint Laurent market in French Guyana .......................................................................................................... 200 Figure 148: Smoked Peccary [P. tajacu or T. tajacu] being sold in the Paramaribo market in Suriname ....................................................................................... 201 Figure 149: Smoked Peccary [P. tajacu or T. tajacu] being sold in the Paramaribo market in Suriname ....................................................................................... 201 Figure 150: Smoked Quenk and Fresh Lappe [Agouti paca] being sold in the market in Paramaribo, Suriname ................................................................................... 202 Figure 151: Peccary and Agouti paca meat being sold fresh in the Iquitos Market in Peru ....................................................................................................................... 202 Figure 152: Smoked Peccary meat being sold in the Iquitos Market in Peru ................. 203 Figure 153: The Harvesting of Muscle from Animals .................................................... 206 Figure 154: Relationship between meat tenderness and Aging ...................................... 207 Figure 155: Factors affecting the quality of a cut of beef. .............................................. 208 Figure 156: Mature Peccaram [29kg Liveweight], shot in the head. Note:The long canines and the testicles. 211 Figure 157: Mature Peccaram [29kg Liveweight] showing the long canines ................ 211 Figure 158: Mature Peccaram [29kg Liveweight]. Note: The testicles and the Dorsal Scent Gland. .................................................................................................. 211 Figure 159: Hot water being thrown on the skin of the Peccaram to facilitate easy hair removal ......................................................................................................... 211 Figure 160: Hair removal by scraping with a knife, note that the Dorsal Sent Gland is kept intact. ..................................................................................................... 211 Figure 161: After the hair has been scraped off the carcass is washed, precaution must be taken not to scrape the Dorsal gland as this has to be cut out as shown in the next figure. .................................................................................................... 211 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xxix] Garcia et al [2005] Figure 162: Dorsal Gland cut off [bottom left hand corner of the picture] and eviceration begins ............................................................................................................ 212 Figure 163: Eviseration of the Peccaram carcass ........................................................... 212 Figure 164: Removal of Testicular and Glandular Tissues ............................................ 212 Figure 165: Removal of Testicular and Glandular tissue ............................................... 212 Figure 166: The Four Quarters ....................................................................................... 212 Figure 167: The Four Quarters of the Peccaram Carcass ............................................... 212 Figure 168: The Left Half of a Peccary Carcass ........................................................... 215 Figure 169: The Right Half of a Peccary Carcass.......................................................... 215 Figure 170: The Left Leg of a peccary Carcass .............................................................. 215 Figure 171: The Disected Sholder of a Peccary Carcass ............................................... 215 Figure 172: The Ribs of a peccary Carcass .................................................................... 215 Figure 173: The Loin of a Peccary Carcass .................................................................... 215 Figure 174: Mr. Jean Claude Azema and Mrs. Ginette Clermont of “Ma Cuisine” and their guests who are farmers from France [July 2004]. ................................ 217 Figure 175: Front Entrance of “Ma Cuisine” showing the “Ferme Auberge” certification ....................................................................................................................... 218 Figure 176: Front Entrance of “Ma Cuisine” showing the “Ferme Auberge” certification ....................................................................................................................... 218 Figure 177: La Carte [The Menu] of “Ma Cuisine”. ..................................................... 219 Figure 178: The Guests of “Ma Cuisine” who are farmers from France. ....................... 220 Figure 179: The Guests of “Ma Cuisine” who are farmers from France. ....................... 220 Figure 180: Cooking Uses of a Fabricated Carcass ........................................................ 221 Figure 181: Fricassee de Peccary et Citrouille [Stewed Peccary and Pumpkin]-Entrée 225 Figure 182: Fricassee de Peccary- Main Meal ................................................................ 225 Figure 183: A Semi-domesticated peccary in Brazil receiving a melon from a stranger 231 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xxx] Garcia et al [2005] LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Taxonomy of the Collared peccary (Pecari tajacu or Tayassu tajacu) ............ 70 Table 2: Common Names of the Collared Peccary ....................................................... 70 Table 3: Volumes of cecum and different compartments of the stomach of Tayassu tajacu. [Relative volumes are expressed as percentages of total stomach volume............................................................................................................. 77 Table 4: Reproductive Features of the Collared Peccary (Peccari tajacu or Tayassu tajacu) .............................................................................................................. 84 Table 5: Reproductive parameters of the Collared Peccary (Peccari tajacu or Tayassu tajacu), comparing the exploitation of Belem (Brazil) (n=26) and Iquitos (Peru) (n=6) ..................................................................................................... 85 Table 6: Reproductive potential of the Collared Peccary based on the information in Table 5 ............................................................................................................ 86 Table 7: Blood and Renal Profiles of Peccaries reared in captivity .............................. 91 Tale 8: Haematology of Captive Reared Peccary in Peru ........................................... 92 Table 9: Parasites present in captive reared Tayassu tajacu ......................................... 92 Table 10: Results from the treatment with Ivermectina in Tayassu tajacu.................... 93 Table 11: Presence of antibodies for Leptospirosis in peccaries reared in captivity in Iquitos Peru ..................................................................................................... 93 Table 12: Causes of Mortality in Tayassu pecari reared in the Peruvian Amazon ........ 94 Table 13: The nutritive Value of Peccary meat [as fed basis/ fresh] .............................. 95 Table 14: Growth and Production Parameters for the Collared Peccary, ....................... 97 Table 15: Estimates of Peccary Consumption per year by Low-Income & Rural Populations of the Brazilian Amazon ........................................................... 179 Table 16: Area of forests in Trinidad and Tobago ........................................................ 181 Table 17: Major Local Game Species hunted in Trinidad and Tobago ........................ 182 Table 18: Wildlife Section, Forestry Division State Game Licences Programme Total Permits Sold, Revenue Collected & Total Number of Hunters During The Period 1989- 2003 ......................................................................................... 185 Table 19: Wildlife Section, Forestry Division State Game Licences Programme Permits Sold by Species during The Period 1989- 2003............................................ 186 Table 20: Reported Harvest for Seasons 1990 Through 1995 ...................................... 187 Table 21: Value [$TT] of harvest for the Period 1990-1991 ........................................ 187 Table 22: Value [$TT] of harvest for the Period 1991-1992 ........................................ 188 Table 23: Value [$TT] of harvest for the Period 1992-1993 ........................................ 188 Table 24: Value [$TT] of harvest for the Period 1993-1994 ........................................ 189 Table 25: Value [$TT] of harvest for the Period 1994-1995 ........................................ 189 Table 26: Number of Animals Harvested during the hunting seasons from 1999 to 2003............................................................................................................... 190 Table 27: The Names of the different wholesale cuts of a Quenk/ Peccary Carcass ...... 216 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xxxi] Garcia et al [2005] INTRODUCTION AND HOW TO USE THIS BOOKLET The Purpose of this booklet…. This booklet, like the first in this series on the Agouti (Brown-Uddenberg et al 2004), has come about because it was realized that there was need for production models for Neo- tropical Wildlife species. This was required to complement the classroom experience of the UWI course “AL65B Tropical Zoo and Wildlife Production and Management” which has been offered since 1996 by the first author with support from Professor Stanley Temple [University of Wisconsin-Madison] and Dr. Howard Nelson [then his Ph.D. student and now the Scientific Advisor to The Asa Wright Nature Centre in Arima, Trinidad, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago]. This course is a Graduate Elective within the “M.Sc. in Tropical Animal Science and Production” programme of the Department of Food Production [DFP], Faculty of Science and Agriculture, St Augustine, Trinidad, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Surveys conducted in Trinidad and Tobago suggested that there was interest in rearing the Peccary. In 2000 the database on 115 wildlife farmers in Trinidad revealed this situation. This was again reinforced by the 2004 database of 256 wildlife farmers. However, it should be noted that the National Agricultural Census does not include a category on wildlife farmers. In the classroom it was also realized that students were interested in the Peccary but did not have the type of information needed to develop a predictable production system. Farmers and wildlife lovers have also expressed a need for this type of information. In Trinidad and Tobago the only scientific report seen on the peccary [locally called the Quenk] was that by Amour and Garcia [2001]. However, Sowls (1984, 1997) has produced the most authoritative documents on the Collared Peccary to date. This has therefore provided the foundation upon which we were able to build. It has been complemented by our livestock production research and varied experiences gained from many local wildlife farmers and zookeepers in Trinidad [The Emperor Valley Zoo], Austria [The Salzburg Zoo], The United States, The United Kingdom, Germany [The West Berlin Zoo], Brazil and French Guiana [Station Experimentale de Soucomou of INRA and La Chambre Departementale de l’Agriculture de la Guyane]. The most recent publications on the Collared Peccary originated in Brazil by Nogueira Filoh (1998, 1999) [accompanied by a video in Portuguese on the Collared and White Lipped Peccaries] and Inagaki de Albuquerque et al (2004a, b and c) and in Peru by Rengifo Pinedo and Navarro Torres (2002), Galvez et al (2004), and Mayor Aparicio (2004) in both Peru and Brazil. These publications were instrumental in getting this document to this stage. We have also recognized that the “Multifunctionality of Agriculture” requires that we not only conduct research and development work on the domestic species, but also expand the work to include those species with potential for domestication, both in regard to conservation and increased food production and food security in Latin America and the Caribbean [the Neo-tropics]. This “Multifunctionality of Agriculture” suggests that Agriculture performs the following functions: Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [xxxii] Garcia et al [2005] 1. producing Public Goods versus Private Goods, 2. producing Primary Products versus Production for Processing, 3. producing Food versus Non food items, 4. generating Material Wealth versus Immaterial Wealth, and 5. producing Commercial Goods versus Non-Commercial Goods (Hervieu, 2002). Achieving these functions is particularly important within the Neo-tropics where exists more than 25% of the world’s mammals, approximately 33% of the world’s birds, 19% of the world’s reptiles, and 46% of the world’s amphibians (Ojasti, 1996). Thus the Neo- tropics is very important from an animal biodiversity standpoint considering that it occupies less that 20% of the world landmass. Overall these wider factors guided La Chambre Departementale d’Agriculture de la Guyane, l’Institute Nationale de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), the Open Tropical Forage-Animal Production Laboratory (OTF-APL) of the University of the West Indies (UWI) and the Wildlife programme of “La Universidad Estadual do Santa Cruz, Bahia, Brazil” to collaborate in producing this booklet as part of the project: “Connaissance de la faune sauvage de la Guyane: possibilités de gestion et de domestication [Knowledge of the Wildlife of French Guyana and possibilities for its management and domestication]”. This collective initiative has begun with the Peccary, and we now welcome on board the contributions of our other collaborators in Peru, Brazil, CIRAD in France, and the Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona in Spain. This booklet has therefore been written with the following objectives in mind: 1. to outline the recognized threats to Peccary, 2. to be able to quickly answer some of the simple questions on the Peccary, entitled “Aryann’s Questions”, which were the questions that a thirteen [13] year old girl [Aryann Garcia] asked about this animal, 3. to provide an up-to-date scientific literature review on the Peccary, 4. to provide a framework for an intensive/ semi-extensive production model for the Peccary, 5. to share with you the reader the visits made to Peccary farming initiatives in Brazil and Peru and 6. to outline processing and utilization of the animal. The booklet is therefore organized in a manner that we hope all will enjoy. How could you use this booklet? This booklet is divided into the following six (6) sections: 1. Description of threats to wildlife and wildlife farming, 2. Aryann’s Questions on the Peccary, 3. Scientific Literature Review on the Peccary, Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [33] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 4. A Practical Guide or Manual for Peccary Production, 5. A visit to three Peccary Farms ( two in Brazil and one in Peru), and 6. The Conversion of Peccary to Meat and Peccary Cuisine. Aryann’s Questions can be used by primary and secondary school teachers to answer any basic questions asked about the Peccary. Part 3 contains some condensed scientific information on the Peccary and can be used as a reference on the Peccary. Part 4 contains relevant information on the setting up of an intensive Peccary production unit and is designed to be a practical production manual. The Part 5 describes visits to three peccary rearing locations in Brazil and Peru and could be used in conjunction with Part 4 for setting up or improving your production system. Finally, Part 6 introduces peccary cuisine. We do hope that you enjoy reading this book as much as we have enjoyed providing the information for you as part of our effort at an international and inter- institutional scientific and developmental collaboration. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [34] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Part 1 Threats to Wildlife and Wildlife Farming in Latin America and the Caribbean Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [35] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] THREATS TO THE PECCARY AND WILDLIFE IN GENERAL WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO THE NEO-TROPICS [Caribbean, Central and South America] The Peccary and most other wildlife in the New World [Neo-Tropics] are being threatened or endangered by: Human/ Biotic Factors, Pollution and Micro-Climatic changes. These threats are outlined below: 1. Human/Biotic Factors As human populations increase so does the need for additional housing settlements. "Towns and suburbs gradually encroach on the natural forests and bush-land areas 1 thereby destroying the natural habitat of the wild animals." The forested areas where these animals make their home, have not only been threatened by the clearing of land for housing construction, but have also been under threat from the building of motorways and access roads which fragment their natural habitat. In many small-island states the aim of becoming self-sufficient in food has led to more land being devoted to agriculture. New agricultural areas are being rapidly developed in an attempt to supply these countries with food. Additionally, the removal of timber from the forests as well as forest fires have lessened the obstacles to hunters, and has lead to further habitat destruction. Other major causes for the decline in the number of Collared Peccaries are over-hunting and indiscriminate killing. Some hunters disregard the illegality of hunting in the closed season and therefore kill animals that may be potentially fertile or pregnant. This action is fuelled by the willingness of members of the society to purchase wild meat both during and outside of the legal hunting season. 2. Pollution When the human population disposes of refuse using unsanitary or environmentally hazardous methods, there are negative effects on preservation of all wild animals. 3. Climate Change Global and regional/local climate changes, both natural and manmade, adversely impinge on the environment and micro-climate of wildlife. Increasing rainfall and rising temperatures impact negatively on both the flora and fauna, thereby reducing food supplies, animal habitat and possibly their reproductive rates and health. These threats have spawned strategies which are going to be discussed next. 1 R. Holmes, "Our Duties to Endangered Species", Conservation and Values. (Colorado: Colorado University Press, 1998) 57. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [36] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] SUMMARY OF SOLUTIONS FOR THE PRESERVATION AND UTILIZATION OF NEO-TROPICAL WILDLIFE In an effort to halt the decline of the wildlife population in Latin America and the Caribbean four conservation approaches are reviewed below. The first general approach was suggested by Ojasti (1996), and it has nine (9) broad areas. The second approach is that practiced in French Guiana (Richard-Hansen and Hansen, 2002). The third approach is the generalized practice that is being used in North America. The fourth approach has been suggested by Kissoonsingh and Garcia (unpublished) for the Small Island States of the Caribbean. These four approaches are briefly outlined below. A STRATEGY FOR WILDLIFE UTILIZATION IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN Ojasti (1996), working in Venezuela, proposed a strategy for wildlife management for Latin America [wherein lies the Neo-tropics], based on the following nine [9] elements: 1. TOTAL PROTECTION 2. PROTECTED AREAS 3. SPORT HUNTING 4. CAPTIVE BREEDING 5. EXTENSIVE MANAGEMENT OF COMMERCIAL SPECIES 6. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION 7. RESEARCH 8. WILDLIFE PROTECTION SERVICES 9. OTHER STRATEGIES. The full details of this strategy can be downloaded from the FAO website, FAO Conservation Guide #25, FAO Rome. A STRATEGY FOR WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN FRENCH GUIANA French Guyana is a unique neo-tropical location. It occupies an area of 91,000 square kilometers and has a population of 191,309 persons (July 2004 estimate). Hunting is still allowed year-round, but animals are categorized into three groups as follows:  Animals that are Red listed and cannot be hunted (red animals), these representing the Fully Protected Species;  Animals which can be hunted for personal use only and which are not to be traded, Hunting permitted but not for trade and  Animals which can be hunted and traded locally (green animals, totally unprotected), (Richard-Hansen and Hansen, 2002). Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [37] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] This green list consists of the following of eight (8) species of mammals: 1. Collared Peccary [Tayassu tajacu, Pecari tajacu] 2. White Lipped Peccary [Tayassu pecari] 3. Tapir [Tapirus terrestris] 4. Paca [Agouti paca] 5. Agouti [Dasyprocta leporina] 6. Capybara [Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris] 7. Nine-Banded Armadillo [Dasypus novemcinctus] 8. Armadillo [Dasypus kappleri] The above species have been reported to account for 73% of all mammalian catch, based on a study on animal biomass harvested in the Brazilian Amazonia. The Collared Peccary accounted for 18.3% of this, representing 27,065 tonnes harvested annually by the low- income rural population (Peres, 2000). THE NORTH AMERICAN APPROACH The approach that is adopted in the USA and Canada is based on the "The Practice of Wildlife Management". This is defined as the science/art of manipulating animal and plant populations and their habitats, to achieve specific human objectives. This approach has five components that are listed as follows:  Management of Exploited species (Game species)  Management of Over-abundant species (Pest species)  Management of Rare and Declining species (Endangered species conservation)  Management of Critical habitats/ecological communities (Nature Parks and Reserves) and  Financing Wildlife Management. The focus in this approach is on Management and Law Enforcement. A STRATEGY FOR TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO [A SMALL ISLAND STATE] Kissoonsingh and Garcia (unpublished) have suggested a Strategy for Trinidad and Tobago consisting of the following elements: 1. Enforcement of the existing Land Use Zoning Laws. 2. Enforcement of the Wildlife Conservation Laws with increased penalties. 3. Enactment of new Anti-Pollution laws. 4. Establishment of Wildlife Emergency Relief Centres. 5. Education of the population, and 6. Establishment of Captive Breeding Centres or the Empowering of Farmers to produce wildlife and in particular, the Peccary and other desirable wildlife species. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [38] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] The following is a more in depth explanation of these elements. 1. Enforcement of the existing Land Use Zoning Laws These are enacted laws dictating land use in order to preserve the natural habitat of many species of wildlife. These laws have not always been enforced. Unless the situation improves land use zoning will continue to be problematic and not be of any real benefit to conservation. 2. Enforcement of Wildlife Conservation Laws In some small island states the concept of conservation is incorporated into the wildlife laws for protecting all wildlife against hunting. In Trinidad and Tobago for example the Peccary needs special attention because of its threatened status. There are weak law enforcement initiatives, while the monetary rewards from breaking these laws are high. Higher monetary penalties are necessary, accompanied by long terms of penal punishment, for both the lawbreakers and guilty law enforcement officers. In this way it may deter them from continuing the trade out of season. 3. Enactment of New Anti-Pollution Laws The enactment of new pollution laws with an emphasis on the proper disposal of industrial waste, is critically needed in many countries. Meaningful penalties, including permanent closure of the offending industry, could be introduced to deter the indiscriminate dumping of effluent into water sources. Additionally, the burning of waste that causes air pollution would be included in these laws. However, in the legislative process, there is the human element, which too often is easily compromised. 4. Establishment of Wildlife Emergency Relief Centres Wildlife emergency relief centres, once developed, can assist in the protection and rehabilitation of wildlife. These centres could be established in those populated areas near to forests to allow the retrievers easy access. Their services would include a mobile unit to recover wild animals from homes, disaster areas as well as young animals orphaned by hunters. The rehabilitation centre will act as the repository for breeding animals. This solution is costly and the human element poses the threat of compromise. 5. Education of the Population Public education with special emphasis on hunters is an existing program. Unfortunately this has had minimum impact on the general trends. Ignorance by the status quo of the Peccary and other wildlife species, as well as the potential monetary gains associated Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [39] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] with the wildlife trade have rendered the education of commercial hunters invalid. This booklet is an effort towards strengthening this important educational effort. 6. Establishment of Captive Breeding Centres/Empowering Farmers to Produce Peccary The establishment of captive breeding centres where young adults will be housed is the recommendation of choice for several reasons. This was recommended by Hislop (1987), a long time ago!!! Firstly, this would lend itself to intensive production. Secondly the centres would provide protection and a healthy environment for reproduction. “Predictable reproduction models 2 will allow correct charting and knowledge of the animal’s cycle.” Figure 2: Peccary Breeding Colony at the Emperor Valley Zoo in Trinidad and Tobago, W.I. The centres could be housed at stations that are already established and associated with the conservation, protection and reproduction of wildlife, such as the Emperor Valley Zoo and the OTF-APL [in Trinidad and Tobago]. The trained staff present there will be available to address medical and behavioral concerns. This is the role in conservation that zoos could fulfill. These centres could also act as relief centres for orphaned and traumatized animals, so rehabilitation and restoration of the animals can be handled in a proper manner and under secure conditions. This type of facility will reduce the threat of human compromise as there will be existing security measures at the Zoo. 2 C.G.C. Rawlins, “Zoos and Conservation: The Last 20 Years.” Advances in Animal Conservation. (London: Zoological Society of London, 1984) 83. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [40] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Additionally all private persons and farmers could be encouraged to produce and manage the Peccary/Quenk commercially, thereby decreasing the dependence on the wild animal populations. The establishment of the first captive breeding centre could be constructed under the umbrella of The OTF-APL and a Zoo. This could become the blueprint for the other centres throughout the country where State institutions exist. These will provide the animals with trained professional health care and security [from attack by hunters through the security mechanisms, already established at the Zoo] comparable to that found at the Zoo. This approach would also assist in integrating wildlife conservation, management, production, utilization and cuisine. THE PROBLEM WITH REGARD TO NEO-TROPICAL WILDLIFE The Neo-tropical Wildlife Fauna or Terrestrial non-aquatic wildlife of the Caribbean is the group of animals most at risk of extinction for reasons of ignorance. Little attention is being given to them so there is uncontrolled and unsustainable harvesting and use. In addition there has always been confusion about who is responsible for the terrestrial animal wildlife, sometimes the Forestry Ministry, sometimes the Environmental Ministry, sometimes the Ministry responsible for Fisheries and sometimes the Ministry of Agriculture of the different Caribbean countries. The Problematique of Neo-tropical Wildlife The “Problematique’ with respect to Neo-tropical Wildlife revolves essentially around three areas: (1) the contradiction between the Private Sector and Public Sector needs and perspectives, (2) the conflict between the in situ and the ex situ conservation activists and (3) lack of knowledge of our Neo-tropical Wildlife species. These are now further elaborated on below. 1. The contradiction/competition between the Private vs Public Sector or Governments Figure 3 presents a view of the world that reflects two polar extremes, from the perspective of the “Private Sector” and the “Governments or the Public Sector”. 2. The Conflict betwwen In situ and Ex situ Conservation The world is also shown in Figure 3 to be divided into two vertical hemispheres, “In situ Conservation activities” and “Ex situ Conservation activities”. In situ refers to conservation within the animals’ natural or undisturbed habitat, ex situ refers to animals being conserved or managed artificially outside of their natural habitats, e.g. Zoos and Wildlife Parks and Reserves. However, all the scientific and social actors are called upon to service both the in situ and ex situ activities. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [41] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] LEGISLATIVE:- AVOIDANCE OF OUTPUT OR THE MINIMIZATION OF TROPICAL ANIMAL EXTINCTIONS GOVERNMENTS NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS INTERNATIONAL CONSERVATION BODIES TROPICAL ANIMAL ALL SCIENCE INTEGRATED ALL IN SITU EX SITU CONSERVATION NETWORK (TASIN) CONSERVATION ACTORS ACTORS AND AND EFFORTS UNIVERSITIES EFFORTS RESEARCH ORGANIZATIONS INSTITUTIONS OF RESEARCH AND HIGHER LEARNING PRIVATE SECTOR OUTPUT INCREASED UTILITY KNOWLEDGE ON THE HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL NEEDS, NUTRITION, HEALTH, REPRODUCTION AND GENETICS, UTILIZATION AND PRODUCTION OF TROPICAL ANIMALS. Figure 3: A conceptual framework for the formation of a Tropical Animal Science Integrated Network (TASIN) Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [42] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 3. Lack of Knowledge Knowledge and Education regarding our Neo-tropical wildlife vs Extensive Knowledge of the Domestic Species that have been imported into the Neo-tropics over the last five hundred (500) years There is little knowledge of the Anatomy, Physiology, Behavior, Nutritional Needs and Husbandry regarding our thirty important Neo-tropical wildlife species. In addition only few scientific studies have been conducted on these species as opposed to the vast scientific literature to be found on the imported [non-neotropical] domestic species of livestock that have been generated by North American, Latin American, Caribbean, European, African, Asian and Australian Universities. In the case of Australia, where there is a vast repository of unique wildlife, research has been conducted through their Departments of Animal Science and Schools of Veterinary Medicine [Anon (1978), Anon (1989), Anon (1990), Anon (1992), Anon (1994a & b)]. The limited understanding of our wildlife by the general public is further reflected by the general lack of an “un biased awareness” of the existence and role within our ecosystems of these species. Additionally the topics of “Zoos and Wildlife” are not included at present in the School Curriculum in the Caribbean, and this topic is only now marginally included in the curriculum of Caribbean and Latin American Universities. What is urgently needed therefore is funding for the basic and applied research on the thirty (30) important Neo-tropical wildlife species as identified by Ojasti (1996). The preparation and delivery of the educational material arising from this research that pin points those species of commercial value would also be useful. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [43] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] THE SOLUTIONS: THE APPROACH OF THE OPEN SCHOOL OF TROPICAL ANIMAL SCIENCE AND PRODUCTION [OSTAS&P] THE ASSUMPTIONS OF THE OSTAS&P REGARDING NEO-TROPICAL ANIMAL PRODUCTION The assumptions are as follows: I. the maintenance of Tropical Animal Biodiversity is essential for the well being of humankind on earth; II. tropical animals have been selected by nature to be adapted to tropical environments; III. there are five (5) factors governing the production of any species of animals or livestock and they are as follows: 1. Nutritional and Feeding Factors 2. Breeding, Genetics and Reproductive Factors 3. Health and Disease Factors 4. Environmental Factors a) the physical environment (housing) and b) the social environment (other animals) and 5. Economic and Marketing Factors; and IV. all animal species can be produced using a Systems of Production Modeling Approach [Box 1 and Figure 19 in Part 4 of this manual] (Garcia and Archibald, 2001). THE PHILOSPOHY OF THE OSTAS&P The elements of the Philosophy are as follows: 1. the concept of the intensification of production is necessary whether in situ and / or ex situ conservation is practiced; 2. the use of the Systems of Production Modeling Approach has the features as described in Figure # 19 in Part 4 of this booklet; 3. Animal Production should be based to the greatest possible extent on the use of the local and available feed resources; 4. seek to understand the factors affecting animal production for each species being studied; in the case of new species, first attempt an understanding of the anatomy and functioning of the Digestive and Reproductive Systems; 5. “Production Systems” should be intensive in approach and integrated in nature, seek to find complementary animals and plants; and 6] “Systems of Production” must encourage plant and animal diversity (Garcia and Archibald, 2001). Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [44] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] THE WAY FORWARD BEYOND THE YEAR 2004: HOW SHOULD PEOPLE WHO SUBSCRIBE TO THE OSTAS&P PROCEED Intensification for the development of this school of thought This concept of intensification involves the bringing together of many animals into a single location, or within close proximity to each other with the problems attendant on increasing animal population densities. Approaches to Developing Intensive Animal Production Systems A philosophical approach that is being suggested for the development and planning of any system is based on two elements: 1. an understanding of the factors affecting animal production as well as 2. an understanding the physiological states of the animal species in question. What must be noted is that there exists an interaction between the above two elements; and this interrelationship will determine the nature of the production system. The reason for this is that at each physiological state, the effect of each factor will be different OR the needs of and the threats to the animals’ survival will be different. The reality, however, is that the Tropical Animal Scientists, working in the tropical developing countries [wherein are the repositories of the abundant animal genetic material], do not have the resources [financial and otherwise] to be able to accept the challenge posed. Globalization and its consequent effect of decreasing research support from and for small states, has left them in a state of not looking after their own interest in exploiting their biodiversity and protecting their intellectual property rights. This is because these small states are not making the necessary investment in research into and the conservation of their own natural renewable resources. This is also helping to make this unfortunate situation even worse. THE SUGGESTED APPROACH BY THE OSTAS&P This new approach should have the following elements: (i) an increased dialogue between in situ and ex situ wildlife conservation efforts (the bringing together of the different human elements) ; (ii) the intensive production of species with the potential for domestication; (iii) the utilization of biotechnology for the conservation of useful genes from within the existing wildlife gene-pool; (iv) the expanded research into the anatomy (digestive and reproductive), health and husbandry of wildlife species; (v) the development of an “International Network on Animal Wildlife” [ Non- domestic animal] research and development, which would include Zoos, Conservation Parks, Universities , Research Institutions and Private Collections; and Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [45] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] (vi) using the CGIAR International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) Network Model as the basis for setting up the Tropical Animal Science Integrated Network [TASIN] as suggested in Figure 3 (Garcia and Archibald, 2001). THE RESOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM: TASIN The resolution being suggested is the initiation of the TASIN network that is directly linked to the New Horizons [Figure #3]. THE NEW HORIZONS The future horizons for Tropical Animal Science and Production appear to lie in: 1. getting a better understanding of the wide range of under-utilized non domesticated tropical animal resources and 2. creating synergisms from the efforts of the 2300 Zoos world-wide [the ex situ conservation and research efforts] and the 4000 plus nature reserves worldwide [the in situ conservation efforts]. The integration of these two ideas can be founded on the complementarity of their individual conservation techniques. The complementary activity of the in situ and ex situ conservation techniques will pose new challenges for Tropical Animal Science [TAS]. The major challenges will lie in the intensification of production activities in both the in situ and ex situ conservation situations. It is for this reason that a Tropical Animal Science Integrated Network (TASIN) is being suggested as a component of the OSTAS&P. It is envisioned that this network could be funded and function in a manner similar to the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR). The first task of the OSTAS&P therefore would be to get this network going. The nature of the network linkages and the general expected outputs are presented in Figure 3. This would afford a better opportunity for the two conservation camps to interface and have constructive dialogue with all the stakeholders in Tropical Animal Science, [Domestic Livestock (Food, Companion and Laboratory Animals/ animals at different points in the productivity and utility to humanity continuum); Animals on the verge of Domestication; and Wild Animals]. TASIN was first suggested by Garcia (1999). In order for TAS to fully blossom, ‘blinkers’ would have to be removed; our Eurocentric approach to Animal Science would have to be changed and greater dialogue between the in situ and ex situ approaches to animal conservation, management and production must be engaged. Blaut (1997) has suggested that this “Eurocentric diffusionism” has contributed to the current lack of success and overall development of tropical agriculture and has contributed to the destruction of small holder agriculture in Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands. One should take note of this and avoid it having a negative effect on the future of TAS that is still in its infancy. Hence those who subscribe to the thinking of the "The Open School of Tropical Animal Science and Production [OSTAS&P]" would agree that there is a need to view TAS and Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [46] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Tropical Livestock Development from a different perspective, if this science is to be advanced. A move possibly from "Dialectical" thinking to "Trialectical thinking (critical thinking in the light of advancing the humanizing project)" as was suggested by the late Dr Herb Addo in the last paper he wrote (Addo, 1996). The new horizon therefore begins with the need for resolving the conflicts among the following:  Neo Tropical Wildlife Conservation  Neo Tropical Wildlife Production  Neo Tropical Wildlife Utilization and Cuisine. This would require the “Harmonious Coordination and Collaboration” among all stakeholders with a clear unemotional articulation of their respective points of view, and “The Synergism of Neo-tropical Wildlife Conservation, Production, Utilization and Cuisine” (Garcia 2004). NEO-TROPICAL WILDILFE FARMING INITIATIVES We would now like to highlight for you the global importance of Wildlife. This is simplified in the following sections. The Value of Wildlife Chardonet, des Clers, Fischer, Gerhold, Jori and Lamarque (2002) have categorized the value of wildlife under the following headings: 1. The Economic Importance of Wildlife  Non-consumptive uses  Consumptive Uses o Wildlife Products  Products from Live Animals  Products from Dead Animals o Wildlife Farming o Wildlife Hunting  Subsistence Hunting  Commercial Hunting  Sport Hunting o Wildlife Husbandry o Wildlife Ranching  Reindeer Herding  Game Ranching 2. The Nutritional value of Wildlife 3. The Ecological Role of Wildlife 4. The Socio-cultural significance. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [47] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] In the USA in 1996 it was estimated that 35.2 million individuals fished, 14 million individuals hunted, 9.5 million individuals hunted and fished, and 62.9 million individuals participated in at least one type of wildlife viewing activity [Chardonet et al (2002) citing Anon (1996)]. They also reported that the total expenditure on all wildlife related activities in 1996 was an estimated US$101 billion. Records corresponding to these are not very easily available from within Neo-tropical economies. It therefore makes it difficult to make a case to justifying funding for Neo-tropical wildlife research and conservation in these states. The non-consumptive use of wildlife is associated with viewing wildlife and this generates revenue through money spent on accommodation, transportation, food, equipment and miscellaneous goods used by individuals enjoying wildlife-appreciation activities. THE REASONS FOR THE CAPTIVE REARING OF ANIMAL WILDLIFE SPECIES Captive-bred stock will prevent the possible extinction of the indigenous animal wildlife species within a country. In Trinidad and Tobago these animals might include the Agouti (Dasyprocta leporina), Lappe (Agouti paca), Cocrico (Ortalis ruficauda) and the Deer (Mazama americana) as these are the species that are some of the most hunted. In Guiana on the South American mainland, however, these animals are plentiful. On the other islands of the Caribbean other useful species but threatened species include the Mountain Chicken (Leptodactylus fallax) in Dominica; the Jamaican Rock Iguana (Cyclura collie) and the Bahamian and Jamaican Hutia (Geocapromys brownii) in Jamaica. These latter two species are in fact on the world list of endangered species. Wildlife Farming would therefore ensure the conservation of gene pool in the wild for future work on the improvement of the captive reared wildlife stock. The role of wildlife farming An examination of the literature suggests that wildlife farming has a multipurpose function in society. These functions can be categorized as follows: 1. production of food and commercial products; 2. economic opportunities; 3. rural development; 4. recreation and aesthetics; 5. religious activities; 6. biological pest control; 7. integrated farming; 8. education and 9. conservation benefits. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [48] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] THE EVOLUTION OF WILDLIFE FARMING IN THE CARIBBEAN AND FRENCH GUYANA Wildlife farming has been practiced for several years around the Caribbean and Latin America and has taken many revolutionary and evolutionary paths. In this section a short description is provided. Hislop (undated), defined wildlife farming as the rearing or keeping of (game) animals for the purpose of captive breeding. In Trinidad & Tobago possible candidates for successful farming include the following: (i) -agouti (Dasyprocta aguti now D. leporina), (ii) -alligator/spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus/ C. sclerops) (iii) -cocrico (Ortalis ruficauda),[this is one of the two national birds of Trinidad and Tobago]; (iv) -deer/red brocket deer (Mazama americana), (v) -iguana (Iguana iguana), (vi) -lappe/spotted paca (Agouti paca), (vii) -manicou/black eared opossum (Didelphis marsupialis insularis), (viii) -morocoy (Geochelene spp), (ix) -tattoo/nine banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), and (x) -wild hog /quenk/ collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu, Peccary tajacu). 3 Hislop (1987) suggested that there appeared to be two categories of wildlife farmers, the hobbyist and the backyard farmer. Dr Carol James reported that captive rearing of wildlife has been practiced in many rural communities in Trinidad & Tobago for several 4 years and has outlined the socio-economic benefits of this (James,1988) . Such rearing was carried out as an underground operation because of the fear of prosecution. In 1986 an FAO expert suggested that there was no legal prohibition against the keeping of game animals in captivity (Asibey, 1986). However, it was cautioned that wildlife farmers st should not dispose or trade their animals during the closed hunting season (i.e. April 1 to th September 30 annually). More recently international conservation and development organizations have begun to lend support to captive-breeding of wildlife, as a basis for food production. These include the International Union of Nature and Natural Resources; the Smithsonian Institution; and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. Recently, several governments, including that of the Republic of Trinidad & Tobago, have become aware of the importance of wildlife farming as a form of economic activity to be exploited or explored by rural communities. Official approval and encouragement of wildlife farming has led to the discovery of a large pool of active farms. These farms were run mainly as hobby units for recreation and retirement, or as a peasant/ subsistence type operation to supplement incomes. With Dr. Asibey's encouraging initiatives in Trinidad and Tobago co-operation among existing farmers was fostered 3 Hislop,G. (1987). Wildlife Farming: Problems and Prospects, Wildlife Section, Ministry of Food Production, Marine Exploitation, Forestry and the Environment. 5pp Mimeograph. 4 James , C. (1988). The Socio-Economic Importance of Wildlife Farming in Trinidad and Tobago, Wildlife Section, Forestry Division, Ministry of Food Production, Marine Exploiration, Forestry and the Environment. 8pp Mimeograph. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [49] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] through the formation in 1984 of the Wildlife Breeders’ and Farmers’ Association of Trinidad and Tobago. This association provided the ideal avenue for co-operation between the Ministry of Food Production Lands and Marine Resources and wildlife farmers. Rooplal (2004) surveyed wildlife keepers and farmers in Trinidad and Tobago and from a list of 250 registered wildlife farmers [obtained from the Wildlife Section of the Forestry Division of the Ministry of Public Utilities and the Environment]. He reported that 81 were active, fourteen (14) of them never started farming and sixty four (64) of them stopped farming. The results showed that the majority of farmers were from rural districts and the majority of farmers reared the agouti (Dasyprocta leporina). The majority of them were also over 50 years of age and had both primary and secondary school education. Most farmers kept these animals for non commercial purposes, but some also kept them for commercial reasons. The majority of them depended on the wild for obtaining animals but some also sourced there animals from captive reared stock. The most important finding was that the wildlife farmers identified three (3) constraints to the expansion of wildlife production in Trinidad and Tobago as follows: 1. Breeding Animals: difficulties in obtaining breeding animals 2. Information: limited technical and production information on the neo-tropical species and 3. No Support from the state for Wildlife Production: a lack of state support for wildlife production. At present within the Department of Food Production, Faculty of Science and Agriculture at the UWI, St Augustine there exists the Open Tropical Forage–Animal Production Laboratory [OTF-APL] where attempts are being made to develop animal production models and systems of production for the following non-domestic animal species: Rodents: Agouti (Dasyprocta leporina ) Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris ) Lappe (Agouti paca) Reptiles: Iguana (Iguana iguana ) Red tailed Boa (Boa constrictor constrictor ) Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus/ Caiman sclerops ) Amphibians : Mountain Chicken (Leptodactylus fallax) Marsupials: Opossum/ Manicou (Didelphis marsupialis insularis) Ruminant: Deer (Mazama americana) Avian: Cocrico (Ortalis ruficauda) Scarlet Ibis (Eudocimus ruber) Pawi/ Piping Guam (Pipile pipile pipile) Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [50] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Suiformes: Collard Peccary or Quenk (Pecari tajacu/ Tayassu tajacu) Felines: Ocelot (Felis pardalis/Leopardus pardalis) Armadillos: Nine banded Armadillo/ Tattoo (Dasypus novemcinctus) Anteaters: Lesser Anteater/ Tamanduas/ Matapel (Tamanduas tetradactyla) Sloths: Poe me one (Choloepus didactylus) Also in Trinidad and Tobago work is ongoing with aquatic species in the Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, The UWI, and at The Institute of Marine Affairs. In the wider Caribbean most Ministries of Agriculture have a Fisheries Division where information on aquatic species can sometimes be obtained. THE INITIATIVES WITH WILDLIFE FARMING IN FRENCH GUIANA OF THE CHAMBRE D’AGRICULTURE DE LA GUYANE The French Guiana wildlife work began as a response to their farmers continued demands. It has involved several partners. Their initiatives commenced in June 2000 and is embodied in the project entitled: « Knowledge of the Wildlife of French Guiana: Possibilities for Intensive Production and Domestication » The Institute Nationale de la Recherche Agronomique [INRA] of the French Republic and la Chambre de l’Agriculture de la Guyane [CAG] had conducted nutritional and reproductive studies on the Collared Peccary at the Experimental Station at Soucoumou in French Guiana [Figures 4 & 5]. In addition, Judas (1999) and Judas and Henry (1999) had conducted Ecological Studies on the collared peccary in the humid Amazonian forest in French Guiana. These studies spanned the decade of the 1990’s. This scientific platform created on the Collared Peccary along with the interest expressed by the farmers for rearing this animal precipitated the CAG to request of INRA Antilles-Guyane assistance in developing a production system for the Collared Peccary that could be used by farmers. This led the INRA and la Chambre to the Open Tropical Forage-Animal Production Laboratory [OTF-APL], Department of Food Production, UWI in Trinidad and Tobago and the result was the development of a collaborative project. This project is divided into two sub-projects- one that is taking place in French Guiana and the other that is taking place in Trinidad and Tobago. There are three main reasons for this initiative and they are as follows: Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [51] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 1. there is consumer demand for “wild meat” that is constantly expanding both in French Guiana and Trinidad and Tobago; 2. there has been a vision of the need to diversify the existing agricultural farms in French Guiana and 3. the agriculture in French Guiana is in the throes of a sustainable development thrust. These realities have led the CAG to enter into cooperative activities with Trinidad and Tobago and Brazil which seek to obtain concrete results on producers’ farms as well as on the CAG Field Station at Soucoumou near to Kourou in French Guiana. This project’s objectives include: 1. the placement of experimental peccary production units on selected farms; 2. identifying any limiting factors or knowledge that is limiting Peccary production and domestication; 3. working alongside the farmers in developing the production systems; and 4. working towards the developing of a wildlife production sector. Expected output objectives: 1. production of a technical-economic booklet on the production system; and 2. studying the technical components involved in the setting up and unfolding of this experimental phase. The following have been the activities to date: a) a technician has been made availed to the French Guiana project, thanks to the scientific participation and commitment of the OTF-APL, DFP, Faculty of Science and Agriculture of the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad and Tobago; b) contact has been established with workers in Brazil via a visit of the Peccary Project Team from French Guyana and UWI to the wildlife research initiatives at the Universidade Estadual do Santa Cruz, Ilheus, Bahia, Brazil; and c) information exchange has been productive to the point where the French Guiana nd part of the project is physically putting in place the 2 phase of its semi-extensive production system of collared peccaries with its project farmers. This phase is due to end in December 2005, while the project is slated to continue studying the setting up of production systems for the Agouti (Dasyprocta leporina), the Green Iguana (Iguana iguana) and the Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris). The contents of this booklet are therefore an important contribution to this effort, for its multi- national, multi-lingual, multi-cultural, multi-institutional and multidisciplinary nature. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [52] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 4: Soucoumou Experimental Station Figure 5: Integrated Aquaculture, Atipa or Cascadura (Haplosternum littorale) and Muscovy Duck Production at Soucoumou Experimental Station in 2003 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [53] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] THE WORK OF INSTITUTE NATIONALE DE LA RECHERCHE AGRONOMIQUE [INRA-AG] WITH NEO-TROPICAL WILDLIFE Work by INRA-AG on the collared peccary and on the white lipped peccary involved the captive rearing of these animals in the middle 1990’s at the research station at Soucoumou near Kourou (where the European Union Space Station is located) in French Guyana. The focus of the work was aimed at getting a better understanding of the digestion of fibre and concentrate feeds by these two Peccary species. Scientists who had expertise with pig nutrition from the “Station de Recherches Porcines, INRA, St. Gilles” and “Institut Technique du Porc, Le Rheu”, France conducted these trials. They found that the Peccaries digested the fibre very well and that the digestive system of these animals functioned more like that of ruminants than mono-gastrics or pigs. A very important feature of this work was the development of restraining cages and metabolism equipment modified from pig experimentation apparatus. The recommendation from this work was that there was the need for further physiological or biochemical data on the digestive capacity of the pancreas, the small and large intestine and the gut microflora. INRA-AG again became involved with work on Neo-tropical Wildlife when in 2000 they were asked for scientific assistance by the CAG for guidance in developing production models for the Collared Peccary and other Neo-tropical species. INRA Centre Antilles- Guyane then engaged the collaboration of the Open Tropical Forage Animal Production Laboratory (OTF-APL) of the University of the West Indies for collaborative support in this area. This book with the multinational authorship is the result of INRA’s Antilles- Guyane’s critical intervention. WORK IN BRAZIL WITH PECCARIES In Brazil there seem to be three (3) focal points for research work on the Collared Peccary. These institutions are as follows: 1. UNIVERSIDAD ESTADUAL DE SANTA CRUZ, Departamento de Ciencias Agrarias e Ambientais, Rod. Ilheus-Itabuna, Km 16 45650-000 Ilheus, Bahia, Brazil. Professor Sergio Nogueira-Filho and Professora Selene Siqueira Da Chuna Nogueira are the key workers in this area. They are working with both the Collared and White Lipped Peccary. They also have very active collaboration with Peccary farmers in the state of São Paulo and Bahia. Reference is made to their work in Part 3 of this Book, and we would be visiting their facilities in Part 5 of this Book. They also have an active M.Sc. Programme with the following title: Programa de Pos-Graducao- Zoologia Aplicada, in which the training is in Neo-tropical Wildlife Species. 2. EMPRESA BRASILEIRA DE PESQUISA AGROPECUARIA [EMBRAPA] Departemento Embrapa Gado de Corte Rod. BR. 262 – Km 04. P.O.Box 154 79002-970 Campo Grande, MS, Brazil Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [54] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Dr. Rodiney Mauro, Dr. Ubiratan Piovezan and Dr. Jase Carlos Chaves are the workers there. 3] UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DO PARA Departemento de Psicologia Experimental Av. Agusto Correa 01 66075-110 Belem, Brazil The workers there are Dr. Natalia Inagaki de Albuquerque (who is the leading worker with the Peccary), Dr. Diva Anelie de Araujo Guimares, Dr. Yvonnick Le Pendu (now at the Universidade Estadual do Santa Cruz), and Dr Viana da Silva. Their published work indicates that they have been working with the Agouti (Dasyprocta leporina), Paca (Agouti paca), and the Collared Peccary (Tayassu tajacu). They have been working towards the developing of “Alternative Systems for the Production of the Peccary for small farmers in Amazonia”. These three groups of Brazilian workers share the same interest and have been working and publishing together. THE WORK IN PERU AT IQUITOS IN THE AMAZON The region of Loreto in Peru is one of the richest areas of animal biodiversity in the world. Here there are many ex situ wildlife initiatives (Zoocriaderos), however only two institutions are actively engaged in the production of Peccaries with scientific support. They are the Universidad Nationale Amazonia Peruana (UNAP) and BIOAM. 1] UNAP-Centro de Cria de Maza y Sajino Barrio Florido, Sector Costanera, Rio Nanay, Maynas, Iquitos, Peru. Snr. Martha Rengifo is the prime mover of this initiative, and she and her colleague have written a very useful and practical book on the Peccary that would be further explained in Part 3 of this book. 2] Zoocriadero BIOAM (Biodiversidad Amazonica) La Empreza Biodiversidad Amazonica SRL Km 23 Carretara Iquitos-Nauta, Iquitos, Departemento de Loreto, Amazonia, Peru The principal worker here is Ing. Forestal Carlos Cornejo Arana with support from Dr. Hugo Galvez and others. We shall be visiting this farm in Part 5 of this book. COLLABORATIVE WORK ON THE PECCARY IN SOUTH AMERICA A collaborative project exists on the Collared Peccary between European Partners and South American Partners. The title of the project is: “Development of different production systems for the sustainable exploitation of the collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu ) in Latin America”. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [55] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Project acronym: Pecari. | Reference: ICA4-CT-2001-10045 Project Web Address: http://antalya.uab.es/jcastella/index.asp Project Aims: This project has as its main aim the improvement of the performances of Collared Peccary production systems. The main goal of the project is to design proper methods of breeding the collared peccary in such a way that farmers and consumers in Latin America can make use of the species without detrimental effect to the natural ecosystems and to the wild Collared Peccary populations. Two major issues will be addressed: ■ To increase the productivity of intensive farming systems run by small-scale farmers of Peru and Brazil. In order to achieve this research the following questions are being addressed: (i) What is the basic reproductive biology and proper management requirements for breeding these animals? (ii) How can suitable diets be made from low-cost feed sources? (iii) How to control the health and behavior factors that limit production? ■ To optimise the yield of quasi-natural Collared Peccary ranching systems. In order to achieve this research the following questions are being addressed: (i) How can sustainable productive harvesting schemes be done? (ii) How to improve the carrying capacity of the Collared Peccary habitats? Project Coordination:  Ferran Jori (Coordinator) ferran.jori@cirad.fr  Salete Ziani (Coordination assistant) ferran.jori@cirad.fr  Magali Roullier (Financial cordination) magali.roullier@cirad.fr  Veronique Napoleon (Financial coordination) veronique.napoleon@cirad.fr  Department: ELEVAGE ET MÉDECINE VÉTÉRINAIRE DES PAYS TROPICAUX - Programme: Ecosystèmes naturels et pastoraux  Organisation: CENTRE DE COOPERATION INTERNATIONALE EN RECHERCHE AGRONOMIQUE POUR LE DEVELOPPEMENT - CIRAD Campus International de Baillarguet, BP 503, 34398 MONTPELLIER, FRANCE Participating Institutions and Collaborators:  Empresa Brasileira Do Pesquisa Agropecuaria [Embrapa], Brazil  Universitat Autonoma De Barcelona, Spain Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [56] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005]  Universidade Estadual Do Santa Cruz, Brazil  University of Kent At Canterbury, UK  Universuidad Nacional Mayor De San Marcos, Peru  Universidade Federal Do Para, Brazil  Museum National D’histoire Naturelle, France  Centre de Cooperation Internationale en la Recherche Agronomique pour le Developpement [Cirad], France Project Activities: th 1. INCO PECARI PROJECT: First Meeting Programme 9-11 January 2002, CIRAD, Montpellier, Parc Agropolis, France. st th 2. INCO PECARI Boat Meeting: 21 -25 April 2003, Iquitos, Peru Recent Project Output: Doctoral Thesis - Pedro Mayor Aparicio [2004] Title:"Fisiología reproductiva y desarrollo de métodos diagnósticos del estado reproductivo de la hembra de pécari de collar (Tayassu tajacu, Linnaeus 1758) de la Amazonia" This work has enabled us to get a better understanding of the reproductive potential of the female Peccary within an intensive production framework. This would be further explained in Part 3 of this book. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [57] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [58] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Part 2 ARYANN’S QUESTIONS ABOUT THE PECCARY Figure 6: Granny Angela, Great Grandma Mildred, Anais Garcia and Aryann Garcia at right Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [59] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] ARYANN’S QUESTIONS ABOUT THE PECCARY What type of animal is the Peccary? The Peccary is a mammal and is an animal that looks like a pig but is not a pig. Is the Peccary a wild pig? On the outside peccaries and true pigs look alike and have many similar habits, but Peccaries are not pigs!!!. But they both belong to the same Zoological Family called Suidae. Pigs are from the Old World (Europe, Asia and Africa) and Peccaries are native to the New World (Southern USA, Central and South America and the Caribbean). Where are peccaries found? The Peccary lives in a great variety of locations, from the wet and humid tropical forests of the Caribbean [Trinidad], Central and South America to the deserts [the very dry areas] of Arizona and Texas in the USA and Mexico. It lives as far north as Texas and Arizona, to as far south as northern Argentina and Paraguay. It is an animal that has been able to survive almost anywhere in the Neo-Tropics. This is the New World Tropics that Christopher Columbus rediscovered for the Europeans about 500 years ago. In what year was the Peccary discovered? The Peccary is found naturally from Arizona and Texas in the North, the Caribbean and Central America and all the way down to Brazil and Argentina. It has been around for a very long time and was an important source of meat for the native Indians long before Christopher Columbus came to the New World. Do these animals grow continuously? No. These animals grow quickly up to about four months of age. Then between five months and one year of age they grow slowly. The mature body weight is about 20kg. This is the weight at which the females begin to produce young (reproduce). These animals attain a maximum body weight of between 30 to 40 kg. As you see it is a lot lighter than a pig that grows to about 150kg. Does it bite or is it dangerous? Yes it is a VERY DANGEROUS animal because it has very sharp teeth. These very sharp teeth are called canines, these are the same type of teeth that dogs have to the front sides of their mouth. Peccaries are not poisonous and if the animal is obtained when quite young it can be tamed if handled and cared for on a daily basis, but it usually recognizes only one person. Figure 7 shows us how their teeth are arranged. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [60] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 7: Peccary Dentition [Mr. Neto of Bahia, Brazil showing the four canines of his favorite Peccary on his 5 hectare Peccary Farm that contains about 450 animals of all ages and sexes] What is the color of the Peccary? The Peccary has the following colors, brownish black, reddish brown, golden brown. What ways can be used to catch a Peccary? A Peccary can be hand caught ONLY if it is very young (almost newborn). Otherwise they can be caught using robust nets or baited cages with trap gates. Is the Peccary known by other names? The collared peccary (P. tajacu or T. tajacu) is known by many names in Latin America and the Caribbean as the table below shows. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [61] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Common names of the Collared Peccary COUNTRY COMMON NAME ARGENTINA Tayasu, taitetu BRAZIL Angoro, Cateto, Catete, Caleira-lanca, Canela-ruvia, Chancos de Monte, Porco de Monte, Taitetu, Taicu-canigoara, Tayasu coagara COLOMBIA Zaino ECUADOR East Hungana, Lomochuchi ECUADOR North Tatabra GUATEMALA Ak, Citam, Cuyam, Kenken GUYANAS Patira FRENCH GUYANA Pakira GUAYCURU Chancho rosillo MEXICO Candangas, Coche de monte, Jabali, Pecari de collar Quitam PANAMA Bido, Bidove, Gutarra, Huedar, Pidove, Shtoko PARAGUAY Tayasu taitetu, Taitetu PERU Ondo, Sajino, Pecari de Collar, Chancho de Monte, Cerdo de Monte, Gnaxnam, Como Mero, Ineeni, Yugkioak, Utsak PERU N. Hungana TRINIDAD & Quenk, Wild Hog TOBAGO U.S.A. Javelina VENEZUELA Chacharo, La Baquira de collar Why does it have so many names? It has so many common names as it is found in so many countries that speak different languages and dialects and because it is also eaten by so many people. Why does it have such a complicated name? The Peccary’s scientific name is Pecari tajacu or Tayassu tajacu. The scientific name of an animal is made up of two main parts and these are the “Genus” and the “Species”. Those scientists who are responsible for giving the scientific names to animals [animal taxonomists] would give an animal a Genus and/a Species and/Subspecies. Different animals with the same species name means that they would be able to reproduce if cross- bred and the offspring produced would be fertile. This means that these animals would be able to make other animals like themselves by mating among themselves. For the Peccary the breakdown of the scientific name is as follows: Genus: Pecari or Tayassu Species: tajacu The reason for using scientific names is so that people all over the world who speak different languages when discussing an animal can all be sure of exactly which type of Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [62] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] animal they are talking about so that there would be no confusion. The scientific name is written either in italics (Pecari tajacu or Tayassu tajacu) or underlined ( Pecari tajacu or Tayassu tajacu). The genus begins with a capital letter and the species begins with a common letter. Does the Peccary resemble any other animals? The Peccary that we refer to in this book is called the Collared Peccary, and its scientific name is Pecari tajacu or Tayassu tajacu. But there are two other types of Peccaries and they all resemble each other. They are the White Lipped Peccary [Tayassu peccari] and the Chacon Peccary [Catagonus wagneri]. Figure 8 is a picture of the White Lipped Peccary. The Chacon Peccary is an endangered animal and is presently only found in the wild in Paraguay and Uruguay. Figure 8: White Lipped Peccary [Tayassu pecari] Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [63] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] How does it make its young and how many does it make? Figure 9: A Peccary Female [Peccasow] suckling its two newborn peccaries [Peccasuckling] [Source: Hugo Galvez] The Peccary makes its young standing up, and it makes between 1 to 4 young at a time. But normally it makes about 1 or 2 young, twice per year. Where does it make its nest or where does it live? Peccaries could be found from sea level to elevations of at least 2,400 meters above sea level. The peccary does not lay eggs and therefore does not make a nest. It produces live young and it lives in a wide range of environments. What is the life cycle of the Peccary? The life cycle of the Peccary is very simple. The adults are male [Peccaram] and female [Peccasow] and they make young males and females which grow up to be adult males and females. Does it get sick? The Peccary seldom gets sick. Its main health problems are wounds received during fighting, either among adults or between aggressive males and younger animals. In French Guiana a farmer there (Mr. Neyrat) said that he had a male peccary live for 23 years, and that in eight years of rearing a colony of Peccaries he did not encounter any Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [64] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] health or disease problems. Another farmer in Brazil (Mr. Neto) said that he has had a female Peccary (Peccasow) for 25 years. When it gets sick what could we do? When the wounds develop all you have to do is to attempt to clean them or to prevent the screw worm flies from laying their eggs in their wounds. Can this animal be a pet? No! This animal would not make a good pet for a young child. Can this animal be used as food? Most certainly YES!!! That is the reason why it is hunted, even illegally outside of the hunting season. When is the hunting season? Different countries have different hunting laws. It all depends on their situation. In Trinidad and Tobago, which is a Small Island State (SIS), the hunting season is from the 1st October to the 28th February of the following year (5 months). However, in French Guiana eight mammalian species can be hunted year round. What is the meat of the Peccary called? Aryann’s daddy [Dr. Gary Wayne Garcia] indicated that the meat of the peccary is commonly called the Quenk in Trinidad and Tobago and Pakira in French Guiana. But he suggested that a good universal name for this meat could be “Taku” (Tayassu tajacu). Is Peccary a very tidy animal? It is not an extremely tidy animal but is an animal of habit. It does it numbers in the same location every day in the pen or on the compound. Where does it sleep? It tends to sleep in an area close to where it does its numbers. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [65] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] How does it eat? Figure 10: A Peccary having a meal whole pumpkins and green bananas at the Emperor Valley Zoo in Trinidad and Tobago This picture says it all. Where does it eat? It eats anywhere that there is food and where it is comfortable. When does it eat? In captivity, the animal tends to eat whenever you put a good meal before them. What does it eat? It eats almost anything. It can eat grass, vegetables, fruits, tubers, roots of trees, leaves, bananas and banana pseudostems [the banana stem that is fibrous and sticky and unable to be eaten by humans], baked foods, cooked rice and concentrate feeds. How does it digest its food? The Peccary has a complex stomach like that of ruminants [animals that have four stomachs that can digest fibre]; it also has a functional cecum [equal to our appendix]. However their cecum functions while our appendix does not. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [66] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 11: Peccaries having a meal of cassava forage and banana pseudostems in French Guiana What is a Mommy Quenk/Peccary called? A “Peccasow”. What is a Daddy Quenk/Peccary called? A “Peccaram”. What is a very young Quenk/Peccary called? A “Peccasuckling”. What is a mommy Quenk/Peccary called when she is young? A “Peccayoungsow”. What is a daddy Quenk/Peccary called when he is young? A “Peccayoungram”. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [67] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Part 3 A Scientific Review of the Peccary Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [68] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] INTRODUCTION The use of wildlife (non-domesticated animals) as sources of meat and other animal products is not new (Blankenship et al 1990, Payne 1990). Today, wild animals continue to make substantial contributions to the lives of indigenous peoples in many Neo-tropical countries. The abstracts contained in Anon (2004) and Ojasti (1996) reflect this. The concept of captive management of wild species aims at domestication as a means of supplying alternative sources of animal protein to a growing market (Asibey 1986; Carl and Brown 1985). A notable limiting factor, however, in the development of a wild-life- based industry is the sustainability of the animal resource. A major challenge therefore is the ability to provide a large enough population of manageable animals that can sustain an industry. Herein lies a challenge for the animal production scientists, who can certainly contribute to reducing the time frame for providing a viable and sustainable population of the desired species. If they are able to respond positively to the challenge this should result in a definite reduction of the harvesting pressure on wild animal populations. It would also positively affect the conservation efforts on the target species. This review therefore attempts to highlight what is known about the collared peccary and its domestication. The includes information on its distribution and appearance, diet and nutrition, reproduction, housing, behaviour, handling and restraint, health and disease and socioeconomic factors. The experiences of the scientists and the peccary farmers or keepers who have piloted the research efforts will form the basis of a comprehensive peccary producers’ manual that is badly needed at present and is presented in Part 4 of this booklet. Some excellent efforts to this effect have been added to the wildlife literature by Rengifo Pinedo and Navarro Torres (2002) in Spanish from Peru, Inagaki de Albuquerque (2004 a, b and c) and Nogueira-Filoh (1999) in Portuguese from Brazil. The last document is titled “Criacao de Caititu e Queixada Vicosa” , a booklet of 70 pages, that is accompanied by a VHS video. CLASSIFICATION & NAMES The taxonomic order Artiodactyla, the even-toed ungulates, to which the Collared Peccary belongs, includes most of the mammals which have been domesticated by man, or which serve as major sources of animal protein (Table 1). Three families have been identified here: 1. Camelidae: Camels and Llamas, 2. Bovidae: that includes the Bovines, Ovines and Caprines and 3. Suidae including such animals as pigs and hogs, peccaries and hippopotamuses. Peccaries are unique to the New World (Carl and Brown, 1985) and there are three (3) living species of peccaries: 1. the Collared Peccary (Pecari tajacu or Tayassu tajacu), 2. the White Lipped Peccary (T. pecari) and Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [69] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 3. the Chacon Peccary (Catagonus wagneri) which is the largest of the peccaries. The Chacon Peccary has only been known formally to mammalogy since 1972 and has been considered vulnerable for some time. The Collared Peccary (P. tajacu or T. tajacu) is also known by many names in Latin America and the Caribbean (Table 2) attesting to its widespread distribution. There are at least 31 other names for the White Lipped Peccary (T. pecari), while the Chacon peccary (C. wagneri) is known as the Tagua (Sowls 1984, 1997). Table 1: Taxonomy of the Collared peccary (Pecari tajacu or Tayassu tajacu) Order Artiodactyla Sub-order Suiformes Tylopoda Ruminantia Family Suidae Tayassuidae Hippopotamidae Camelidae Bovidae [Pigs] [Peccaries] [Hippopotamuses] [Camels [Antilope, Llamas and Cattle, Goats Alpacas] and Sheep] Genus Sus spp. Pecari / Hippopotamus sp. Camelus Bos spp. Hylocherus Tayassu sp. Choeropsis sp. spp. Capra sp. spp. Catagonus sp. Lamma spp. Ovis sp. Potamo- Vicugna sp. cherus spp. Babyrousa sp. Source: Adapted from Simpson (1984) and Nowak (1991, 1999) Table 2: Common Names of the Collared Peccary Country Common name ARGENTINA Tayasu, taitetu BRAZIL Angoro, Cateto, Catete, Caleira-lanca, Canela-ruvia, Chancos de Monte, Porco de Monte, Taitetu, Taicu-canigoara, Tayasu coagara COLOMBIA Zaino ECUADOR East Hungana, Lomochuchi ECUADOR North Tatabra GUATEMALA Ak, Citam, Cuyam, Kenken GUIANAS Patira FRENCH GUIANA Pakira GUAYCURU Chancho rosillo MEXICO Candangas, Coche de monte, Jabali, Pecari de collar Quitam PANAMA Bido, Bidove, Gutarra, Huedar, Pidove, Shtoko PARAGUAY Tayasu taitetu, Taitetu PERU Ondo, Sajino, Pecari de Collar, Chancho de Monte, Cerdo de Monte, Gnaxnam, Como Mero, Ineeni, Yugkioak, Utsak PERU N. Hungana TRINIDAD & TOBAGO Quenk, Wild Hog U.S.A. Javelina VENEZUELA Chacharo, La Baquira de collar Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [70] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Adapted from Sowls (1984) and Rengifo Pinedo and Navarro Torres (2002). Superficially, peccaries and true pigs (Family Suidae) look alike and have many similar habits, but peccaries are not pigs. The most comprehensive texts on peccaries, with emphasis on the Collared Peccary, have been those produced by Sowls (1984) and (1997). Less is known about the White Lipped Peccary and the Chacon Peccary. TYPES/ SUB SPECIES Rehgifo Pinedo and Navarro Torres (2002) citing Gongora (2000) indicated that there were fourteen sub-species of the T. tajacu and that they were divided into three groups as follows: 1. the Tajacu or South American group that is grey in color with a pale collar and a black dorsal band; 2. the Patira or Black group with individuals with a slightly visible collar and 3. the Angalutas or Central American grey forms. This information above underscores their widespread distribution throughout the Americas. DISTRIBUTION The species P. tajacu or T. tajacu and T. pecari are native to the neo-tropical rainforests. C. wagneri is limited to the dry thorn forests of the South American Chaco [Wetzel et al. (1975) in Kiltie (1982)]. The ranges of both Tayassu species extend further north and south than its native Neo-tropical forests, into drier scrub, semi-desert areas. More specifically this range extends from Texas, Arizona and New Mexico in the north to northern Argentina in the south. The collared peccary inhabits a wide variety of areas, with varying vegetative types including desert scrub, arid woodland, and tropical rainforests (Kiltie 1982, Nowark 1991 and Sowls 1984, 1997). This animal has been able to survive in many climatic conditions. The peccaries in Panama and Costa Rica existed in habitats of both coastal lowlands and at altitudes of 2,480 metres above sea level (Sowls 1984). Peccaries have also been reported to inhabit both coastal forests and brush lands up to an altitude of 1,860 meters above sea level, Sowls 1984 citing Hadley 1950. These coastal forests, including many other vast areas of Central America are dense, humid, tropical forests with no openings or clearings (Sowls 1984). The only Caribbean islands on which the collard peccary has been reported as native are Cozumel near the coast of Mexico and Trinidad which is at its closest point, only twelve (12) kilometres from the South American mainland [Sowls (1984) citing Joseph (1970), Varona (1973) and Hamblin (1980)]. On the other hand Woodcock (1867) and Ottley (1969/1971) also reported that it was native to the island of Tobago, but today it is now almost extinct in its native habitat there. Woodcock (1867) stated the following: “There are wild hogs to be found on the island, and the country abounds with the pieary, a sort of hog with short ears and a gland on their back; their grunting noise is loud and peculiar.” However, in Tobago, there are some farmers who rear the animals in captivity there with stock coming from Trinidad. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [71] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] APPEARANCE Description The collared peccary is a small ungulate, which resembles a small pig. There are three (3) striking anatomical differences between the peccary and the common pig. Firstly, there is a subcutaneous scent or musk gland on the peccary’s rump which is generally covered by the animal’s stiff hairs and becomes visible when the hairs are erected as a result of stress or excitement (Anon 1975). Secondly peccaries have no inner dew-claws on the hind legs (Sowls 1984). Thirdly, the upper canines are well developed in the male peccaries and are directed downward (Anon 1975) unlike those of wild suids which are sharply curved and flared (Bissonette 1982). Pelage The colours of the individual hairs are generally black, with whitish annulations. The authors of this review have observed peccaries with light brown hairs [Figure 1], but not quite albino type colors within a breeding colony of 15 to 20 peccaries at the Emperor Valley Zoo in Trinidad, West Indies. The collar of whitish hair crosses the hind part of the neck, and extends obliquely upward and backward from the front of the shoulder to the black mane on the back. Seasonal variations in hair lengths occur (Sowls 1984), Figures 12 and 13. Figure 12: Pecc aries at t he Soucoumou Figu re 13: Peccary showing the large Station in French Guiana canines Body size The head and body of adult peccaries range from 750 mm to about 1,000 mm; the shoulder height is 440 mm to 575mm (Nowak, 1991). Its average body weight of 19.3 kg for boars, and a weight of 14.8 kg and 13.6 kg for sows in Arizona have been reported (Eisenberg 1989). In weight tables presented by Sowls (1984; 1997) there was an Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [72] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] apparent wide range of weights among adult animals, varying from 11.4 kg to almost 31.8 kg. Weight ranges of 14 kg to 30 kg for the Tayassu genus have been reported for animals throughout its range (Nowark, 1991; Kiltie, 1982, and Bissonette, 1982). The wide ranges in adult weights were as a result of the quality and quantity of food the animals were able to obtain (Bissonette, 1982 and Sowls, 1984). Sowls (1984) also suggested that the peccaries from Central and South America were smaller than those from Texas and Arizona, differing from Emmons (1990) who observed that the collared peccaries inhabiting dry open areas were small and gray, while rainforest animals were large and blackish. The sex of a live specimen cannot be easily distinguished with the exception of the recognition of the scrotum when the males are observed at a close range (Sowls, 1984). He also reported that in captive-reared animals in Arizona, males and females attained adult weights of 16.4 kg to 20.0 kg at about 42 weeks of age. In some instances, when animals are kept on a good quality diet, they continued to grow slowly until about one year of age, attaining a weight of 23.6 kg. This suggested a growth rate of 0.43 kg per week or 62 g per day from birth (1kg) to one year of age. ADAPTATION TO AMBIENT TEMPERATURE Reports by Zervanos (1972, 1975), Zervanos and Hadley (1973), and Zervanos and Day (1977) cited by Sowls (1984) supplied data on thermoregulation, water relations and energy requirements under changing environmental conditions. They indicated that daily body temperatures of collared peccaries in Arizona varied from 37.5C to approximately 49C during all seasons; skin temperatures always exceeded surrounding air temperatures. These authors cited by Sowls (1984) found that the pelage had a poor insulative value. Under temperate (cold winter) conditions the longer black winter pelage was advantageous. Their absorption of solar radiation helps to keep the animal warm. Additionally a significantly higher basal metabolic rate during the winter months, helps to compensate for the peccary’s poor insulation (Sowls 1984). He further suggested that with the higher winter metabolic rate, food consumption is higher. Zervanos (1972, 1975) cited by Sowls (1984), reported that in the summer period, critical temperatures of 35C and 29.5C were the thermoneutral zone for the collared peccary. He also reported that the collared peccary is unable to prevent increased body temperature when exposed to direct summer sun at an air temperature above 30C, and wind velocity above 60 m/second (Sowls 1984). To deal with high temperatures Sowls (1984) reported that animals were more active between sunset and sunrise (the cooler hours of the night), and bedded down during the heat of the day. To escape the high temperatures, animals seek the shelter of rocks or vegetation (Nowark 1991). Like the domestic pig, peccaries use wallows or at times, dust, to cool themselves (Nowark 1991). Bissonette (1982), on the subject of water conservation, reported that Zervanos and Headly (1973) were able to demonstrate that respiratory evaporation was the main avenue or water loss. However, Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [73] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] peccaries are able to reduce evaporative water loss by 68% and urinary water loss by 93%. This suggests that the peccary has an adaptive physiological mechanism for conserving fluids under stress and is able to survive for periods of up to six (6) days without drinking water (Bissonette 1982). DIET AND NUTRITION IN GENERAL The main staples in the Collared Peccary’s diet are fruits, underground tubers, rhizomes and bulbs, green grass and green shoots. The well developed snout is used to root out bulbs, roots and tubers. In moist rainforests it’s diet includes palm fruits, roots, snakes, grubs and caterpillars, insects and frogs (Sowls, 1984). Judas and Henry (1999) and Judas (1999) reported that the seasonal variation of the home range of the Collared Peccary in the tropical rain forests of French Guiana varied from 157 to 243 hectares, and overlapped greatly in space (46 to 81 hectares), but not time. They also reported that home range sizes were positively correlated with fruit production. During the low fruit season the mean home range was smaller than in the high fruit season. However, Rehgifo Pinedo and Navarro Torres (2002) citing Gongora (2000), reported that peccaries could occupy during their lifetime, a home range from 24 to 800 ha with home ranges of different family groups overlapping . In reference to the desert areas of Arizona, Bissonette (1982) described the collared peccary as a generalist herbivore. In assessing the stomach contents of peccaries inhabiting rainforests, on average, plant reproductive parts constituted most of the finely ground material, followed by vegetative material and then trace amounts of animal material (Kiltie 1981a). Rainforest peccaries are primarily frugivores (Kiltie 1981a). In captivity the related species T. pecari was fed twice daily on carrots, yeast, wheat salad, seasonal vegetables and a small quantity of minced meat (Fradrich 1995). At the Emperor Valley Zoo Trinidad and Tobago, the diet has been similar [but with no meat for the animals on display for about a decade (Personal Communications from Zoo Keepers). Under these conditions of minimal protein intake, the animals have grown and have continued to reproduce in captivity. These animals have been described as omnivorous (Schmidt 1991). DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Dentition The adult collared peccary has the following adult dental formula: Incisors 2-2/3-3, Canines 1-1/1-1, Premolars 3-3/3-3 and Molars 3-3/3-3, thus making a total of 38 teeth. The permanent dentition of the peccary is determined between 74 to 94 weeks (Kirkpatrick and Sowls, 1962). Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [74] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 14: Normal dentition of the adult collared peccary and system of labelling the ndividual teeth [Source: Kirkpatrick and Sowls, 1962] Dental Formula at Birth Incisors 0/1: Canines 1/1 : Pre-molars 0/0 : Molars 0/0 Total Teeth = [2/4] = 6 teeth Adult Dental Formula Incisors [I] 2/3: Canines [C] 1/1 : Pre-molars [P] 3/3 : Molars [M] 3/3 Total Teeth = [18/20] = 38 teeth At birth the collared peccary has all four temporary canines and the two lower incisors. The temporary incisors then erupt between week 3 and week 13. The temporary pre- molars next erupt between week 3 to week 8. The permanent canines erupt between weeks 29 to 41 (7 to 10 months) this approximately coinciding with the onset of sexual maturity at 8 to 14 months. The permanent incisors erupt at 42.5 to 72 weeks (10.5 to 18 months). The permanent pre- molars erupt between 66 to 83 weeks (16.5 to 20.8 months). The first molars erupt at between 17 to 23 weeks (4.3 to 5.8 months), the second molars erupt at between 36 to 50 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [75] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] weeks (9 to 12.5 months) and the third molars erupt at between 74 to 94 weeks (18.5 to 26 months). The collared peccary is one of the few non-carnivorous mammals that possess such large and sharp canine teeth [see Figures 13 & 14]. These pose a problem for domestication. Thus for successful domestication they may possibly have to be removed early in life as is done for domestic pigs. The upper canines are directed straight down while the lower ones straight up (Sowls, 1984 and Eisenberg, 1989) and they rub against each other thus maintaining sharp cutting edges (Eisenberg, 1989 and Kiltie, 1981b). Sowls (1984) suggested that the canines may be of little value for eating. They are modified into tusks but are small (Eisenberg, 1989) growing to a length of 30mm to 35mm (Bissonette, 1982). They, however, seem to be important for: (i) use as a defense mechanism against enemies; (ii) display during squabbles between herd members; (iii) generation of loud, clacking sounds or chatter as warning threats to enemies; and (iv) use in intraspecific situations (Sowls 1984 and Kiltie, 1981b). These long interlocking canine teeth greatly reduce the side ways or grinding chewing motion of the mandible (Sowls, 1984). The only extensive chewing of food that can occur is an up and down movement that crushes the food (Herring, 1972 and Langer, 1979). The incisors of the peccary are well adapted to cropping the vegetation, which is swallowed after a minimum of chewing. Oesophagus No information was found on the oesophagus of the peccary. Stomach The peccary has a unique digestive system and has been regarded as a pseudo-ruminant in early work by Stewart (1964) cited by Shilvey et al (1985). It represents an artiodactylian species with an enlarged fore-stomach, divided into four (4) separate compartments. These compartments were described as a gastric pouch, two blind sacs and a glandular stomach (Langer 1979). The blind sacs together with the gastric pouch, form the fore–stomach of the collard peccary (Langler, 1979). The fore-stomach volume was reported to be 85% of the total stomach volume (Table 3), which seemed to be less than those in other ruminants; sheep (90%) or cattle (88% or 91%) (Slijper, 1946; Maynard and Loosli, 1969 cited by Langer, 1979). The fore-stomach [functionally differentiated as a ‘fermentation vat’ anterior to the small intestine] has been suggested to be more efficient than a cecum (Langer, 1979). Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [76] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Table 3: Volumes of cecum and different compartments of the stomach of Tayassu tajacu. [Relative volumes are expressed as percentages of total stomach volume Compartment Absolute Volume (cm³) Relative Volume (%) Upper Blindsac 130 11.3 Anterior Blindsac 340 985 29.4 85.3 Gastric Pouch 515 44.6 Glandular Stomach 170 14.7 Total Stomach 1.155 100 Cecum 200 17.3 Source: Adapted from Langer (1979) The fore-stomach [the first three compartments] with a reported pH of 5.0 – 6.2 was found to be capable of sustaining a microbial population (Carl and Brown, 1983). The possibility of ruminant-like digestion in the peccary’s large segmented stomach has been suggested by Langer (1979) and Carl and Brown (1983), as there is the presence of a large protozoan population. The animal was also showed to have a low protein requirement when compared to domestic swine and it was found that the digestibility of feeds was more closely related to the mono-gastric swine than that of ruminants (Carl and Brown, 1985 and Shilver et al 1985). On the other hand, Commizoli et al (1997) concluded from digestibility involving total tract apparent digestibility (TTAD) and rate of passage studies, that peccaries functioned more like a ruminant than like a mono- gastric. The peccary’s diet, also unlike that of ruminants, consisted of only minor quantities of food, rich in cellulose and lignin, such as grass [Langer, 1979]. In an attempt to show the close relationship of the peccary’s digestive system to that of ruminants, features of the peccary’s stomach were suggested by Langer (1979) citing Shultz (1976): (i) the possession of a fore-stomach of cornified epithelium; (ii) anlage (rudiments) of a sulcus ventriculi; and (iii) cardiac glands found oral to the fundic glands. The differences between the peccary’s digestive system and that of ruminants that were highlighted as follows: (i) the peccary’s inability to chew its ingesta as efficiently as ruminants; and (ii) neither grasses nor leaves play a major role as a food source. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [77] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Moir et al (1956, 1965) and Langer (1975) have been cited by Langer (1979) in providing six (6) criteria of ruminant-like digestion. These are now listed as they relate to the stomach of the peccary: (1) Gastric chambers store the digesta and slow its rate of passage through the stomach-: The fore-stomach of the peccary forms a storage chamber for its food. The folds slow down the rate of passage of food through the stomach (Langer, 1979). (2) Micro-organisms help to digest the food-: Microbial activity in the stomach which was confirmed by the presence of volatile fatty acids VFAs (Carl and Brown, 1983). VFA concentrations have been found to be seven times as high as in the cecum, ten times as high as the concentration in the anterior intestine, but only one- third to a half of those found in the ruminant fore-stomach, Dyson (1969) as cited by Langer (1979). Additionally Sowls (1984) reported that VFA concentrations in the stomach, small intestine and cecum, that were not in total agreement with the above. The stomach had higher levels of VFAs than the cecum, at 105.90 m/me and 88.19 m/me, respectively. The percent molar proportions of the VFAs were showed to be 62.51% and 60.46% acetate and 28.29% and 29.27% propionate in the stomach and cecum, respectively. (3) Microbial fermentation products are absorbed through the stomach wall-: Both Langer (1979) and Carl and Brown (1983), indicated that the importance of VFAs in the diet was not easily determined. This was based particularly on the vagueness of the level of absorption of VFAs. Langer (1978) cited by Carl and Brown (1983) found no development of papillae in the peccary’s fore-stomach. Papillae are common in the rumen and are known to function in VFA absorption [Carl and Brown (1983) citing Church (1979)]. The possibility of trans-epithelial absorption of VFAs therefore exists by virtue of the fact that the thickness of the wall of the peccary’s fore-stomach is similar to that of the rumen, reticulum and abomasum of ruminants, Langer (1978) cited by Carl and Brown (1983). (4) The host makes use of vitamins produced by the microbes-: Vitamin B levels in the diet were found to be low. This led researchers to believe that the levels of Vitamin B were either low, or that they were met by microbial synthesis within the gut [Dyson (1969) cited by Langer (1979)]. (5) With the help of microbes, non-protein nitrogen can be used by the host-: There was no conclusive evidence for the assimilation of non-protein nitrogen, [Dyson (1969) in Langer (1979)]. (6) In the young animal a ventricular sulcus is necessary-: Langer (1979), citing Black and Sharkey (1970), indicated that a ventricular sulcus is found in the adult collared peccary. The structure in the adult appears to enable fine particles and liquids to bypass the fore-stomach. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [78] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Generally it was suggested by Langer (1979) that the available data on the physiology of the digestive system of the peccary were inadequate to allow for a proper classification of the animal as a fore-gut fermentor or hind-gut fermentor. But it was felt by Shilvey et al (1985) that the digestibility of feeds by peccaries was more closely related to the mono-gastric swine than that of ruminants. However, to the above list of ruminant features, some further points could be added to support its ruminant-like features based on the findings of Commizoli et al (1997), which are listed below. i. The total tract apparent digestibility (TTAD) of fibrous constituents was consistently higher in the peccaries- 62.0% for the Neutral Detergent Fibre (NDF) and 55.7% for the Acid Detergent Fibre (ADF). ii. There was an increase in the mean retention time when animals were fed hay-based diets. iii. Peccaries reared in a semi-arid environment, can eat large amounts of cactus (Opuntia lindheimeri) or agave (Agave fourerodes) which contain high levels of fibre; 17.5% and 23.7% Crude Fibre (CF) on a dry matter (DM) basis, respectively, Commizoli et al (1997) citing Corn and Warren (1984). The rest of the Digestive System The structure of the liver of the peccary is different from that of pigs, and additionally the liver of the peccary does not have a gall bladder (Mac Donald, 1991). Therefore its digestion of fats may be different from that of other mono-gastric animals. There is a dearth of information to be found on the functioning of the small and large intestines, the cecum, rectum and anus of peccaries. Sowls (1984) cited the unpublished work of Stewart (1964) which was a 31 page M.Sc. Thesis from the University of Arizona, Tucson, entitled ‘The anatomy of the alimentary tract of the javelina Tayassu tajacu’. However, up to press time we were unable to see the contents of this document. NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS True nutrient digestibility (TDN) was 0.96 for adult peccaries (Carl and Brown, 1985). The digestion coefficient was higher than that for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginanus) fawns at 0.84 and yearlings at 0.89 consuming pelleted feeds [Smith et al,1975; Holter et al, 1979, in Carl and Brown, 1985]. There was similarity to the combined value 0.94 for various white-tailed deer and mule deer (O. hemionus) fed alfalfa or various brouse species [Robbins et al, 1974, in Carl and Brown, 1985]. The value found in the peccaries studied, was also higher than that found in Hampshire pigs, 0.76 [Carl and Brown, 1985, citing Armstrong and Mitchell, 1955]. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [79] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] The following three points on the nutrient requirements of the collared peccary has been synthesized form the literature: 0.75 1. An apparent disestibility of 0.305g N/kg /day was obtained using pelleted commercial feed with increased apparent digestibility as dietary protein content increased (Carl and Brown, 1985). The apparent digestible nitrogen [ADN] value obtained was determined to be intermediate to white-tailed deer [Carl and Brown (1985) citing Robbins et al (1974), Smith et al (1975) and Holter et al (1979)]. In comparison to that of growing pigs, Carl and Brown (1985) citing work by Armstrong and Mitchell (1955) felt that peccaries showed higher ADN values. 2. The maintenance nitrogen requirement was determined at 0.75 0.815gN/kg /day. This was determined at 6.8% daily CP intake, which was lower than the 10% value for pigs [Armstrong and Mitchell (1955), Lassiter et al (1956) in Carl and Brown (1985)]. 3. The peccary’s protein maintenance requirement appears to more closely match the relatively low requirement of deer [which are true ruminants], than that of the pig. The possible implication is that in this instance, the peccary may have a digestive physiology closer to that of ruminants than that of domestic swine (Carl and Brown, 1985). This is supported by the findings of Commizoli et al (1997) as their data further suggested that the digestive potential of the peccary for fibre was particularly high. In their work on nutrition levels during pregnancy Lochmiller et al (1987) suggested a high quality diet of 165g/kg CP and 3500kcal digestible energy/kg. The mean consumption of dry matter obtained under experimental conditions, in Texas, was 451g DM/day, throughout gestation and this is equivalent to about 2.3% Live Weight. This was also supported by Commizoli et al (1997). The diet of the peccary during gestation had little effect on the neonate’s weight 684 g (±) 23g, or on the gestation interval of 143-147 days (Lochmiller et al 1987). Poor nutrition (low energy and low protein) did adversely affect the condition of the pregnant female whose body tissue stores were utilized to support the developing foetus. There was also poor development of foetal organs such as the brain, heart, pancreas and paired adrenal organ. Animals held in captivity as part of research programmes in Arizona, were maintained on hog pellets which contained 16.5 % crude protein, 2% crude fat and 6% crude fibre and with free access to water, were found to breed readily [Sowls (1984) and Le Pendu et al (2004)]. In their work on nutrition level during pregnancy, Lochmiller et al (1987) citing Gallager (1981) suggested a high quality diet of 16% CP and 3,500 kcal digestible energy/kg. They also reported mean daily digestible energy and protein maintenance 0.75 0.75 requirements for adult peccaries to be 148 kcal/ kg body weight and 523 g/kg body weight, respectively. The suggested mineral and vitamin recommendations followed those of the NRC (1979) for swine as cited by (Lochmiller et al 1987). In attempting to determine the energy maintenance requirements of the collared peccary Carl and Brown (1985) found the digestible energy intake per unit body weight to range between 75.8 to Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [80] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 132.6 kcal/kg/day, with no loss of weight. Zeavanos and Hadley (1973) cited by Carl and Brown (1985) reported a summer maintenance requirement of 72.2 kcal/kg/day. Conclusion on the Collared Peccary’s Diet and Digestive Characteristics The evidence contained in the literature on the digestive system of the peccary suggest that it:  is not strictly a foregut fermentor (ruminant-like digestion);  is not strictly a hindgut fermentor (pig-like digestion); and  may be both a foregut and hindgut fermentor, i.e., it has a flexible digestive system which may be an adaptive mechanism so that the best digestion take place based on the types of feed available in the diverse habitats of this animal species. REPRODUCTION The collared peccary is the only wild ungulate of the Western Hemisphere with a long breeding season or with a year-round breeding season [Sowls,1984; Schmidt, 1991 and Anon, 1999]. Under favorable conditions in captivity, the collared peccary will breed and reproduce readily all year round (Sowls, 1984, Mayor Aparacia, 2004). Males Young males become sexually active at approximately one year and as early as 46-47 weeks [11.5 to 11.8 months]. Sowls (1984) citing Lowe (1970) reported that a decline in sperm production occurs after seven (7) years. However, perm production was found to be sufficient throughout the year for fertilization, allowing the possibility of breeding at all months of the year. Females The uterus is described as bicornate and small, Wislocki (1931) as cited by Sowls (1984, 1997). The tubes and ovaries are materially different from those of the domestic sow, with the peccary having a smaller uterus. Where females failed to become pregnant, the estrous cycle was repeated over the entire year [Bissonette, 1982 and Sowls, 1984] which advantages that give the species a very high breeding potential. The estrous cycle of captive animals in Arizona, was estimated to be between 22.6-24.6 days, and estrus varied between 3.5 and 4.8 days (Sowls, 1984). Reports with captive rearing in French Guiana indicated estrous cycle lengths of 23-34 days, with an average estrus duration of 4 ± 2.9 days (Anon, 1999). In Brazil the length of the cycle was reported as 24 days and the duration of estrus was 4 days (Pinheiro et al 1997). Breeding The age at first breeding approaches one year even in wild populations (Sowls, 1984). In captivity, this could be attained at about eight (8) months (Sowls, 1984), 10-14 months Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [81] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] (Anon 1999), and 8-14 months (Schmidt, 1991). Reporting on Lowe (1970), the earliest observed female copulation for Texas animals occurred at 44 weeks (11 months) of age, the earliest conception occurring at 48- 49 weeks (12 months) when females weighed about 16 kg (Bissonette, 1982). Parturition weight was 23 kg as observed by Sowls, 1984) who viewed the collared peccary as a prolific breeder, citing that captive animals were fecund for up to 14.5 years. This was confirmed from experiences in Brazil [Neto 2003, Personal Communication]. Gestation In Arizona, an approximate gestation period of 145 days was reported by Sowls (1984). In South America Anon (1975) reported a gestation range of 140-158 days. Lochmiller et al (1987) obtained a gestation length ranging from 143-147 days for wild-caught females bred in confinement. Mayor Aparicio (2004) reported a gestation period of 138.3 ± 5.3 days. The peccary, throughout its range, has shown peak periods of estrus and pregnancy to coincide with the availability of feed (Anon, 1975 and Sowls, 1984). Young born during periods of poor nutrition were found to mate as late as 21.5 months of age. In captive- reared facilities, a female fed a poor diet in the last trimester of pregnancy devoured her young (Sowls 1984). Under a diet of commercial pig feed, however, the same animal successfully reared three normal litters. Lutwak-Mann (1962) cited in Sowls (1984) identified B complex vitamins, ascorbic acid, vitamin E, vitamin A, and essential fatty acids as necessary ingredients in a diet for successful reproduction. Physiologically in the peccary the nutritional effect on gestation resembles the responses of swine (Lochmiller et al 1987). These authors also suggested that moderate nutritional stress during gestation has minimal impact on litter size, litter weight, and foetal development. They obtained an average daily consumption of 451g throughout gestation and noted temperature as affecting daily food intake. Weight reductions were observed in pregnant females when fed diets of crude protein levels of 8.4%. Weight loss was assumed to be due to females using their own tissue proteins and energy reserves to support placental-foetal demand. The poor diet had no influence on litter weight, when only twin litters were considered. The average neonatal weight was 684 ± 23g (SE). An average day-old weight of 623g was reported by Sowls (1984). Carl and Brown (1985) 0.75 reported a maintenance nitrogen requirement of 0.815 N/kg body weight of adult peccaries. Poor diets, was reported by Lowe (1970) in Lochmiller et al (1987) as possibly responsible for greater rates of implantation failures and anestrus occurred when fat reserves were depleted [Lochmiller (1984) cited by Lochmiller et al (1987)]. Post-partum Heat [Post partum estrus] Among captive peccaries, Sowls (1984) found that copulation resulting in pregnancy occurred within 3-17 days after the young were removed. This may suggest the exhibiting of lactational anestrus. Therefore, within an intensive production system it would be necessary to early wean the young. However, the recent reproductive work Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [82] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] by Mayor Aparicio (2004) in Bélem (Brazil) and Iquitos (Peru) has definitely demonstrated that the Collared Peccary does not exhibit lactational anoestrus as post-partum estrus was observed at 8.6 ± 2.5 days. This was observed with 18 parturitions. In this study, 81.25% of the females demonstrated post partum estrus, with 50% of them being served at this time, and of those mounted 33% of them became pregnant. This all occurred while the animals were lactating. Litter Size Most life history accounts of the collared peccary indicated that the common litter size was two (2). Accounts of 4, 5 and 6 foetuses have, however, been reported by Sowls (1984). From research on the reproductive tracts of animals killed and animals in captivity, it was shown that 16% of the females gave single births, 73% twins, 9% triplets and 2% quadruplets (Sowls, 1984). Mayor Aparicio (2004) reported an average litter size of 1.89 ± 0.41 and 1.68 ± 0.49 in Bélem and Iquitos respectively. Lactation The female peccary appears to have four pairs of mammary glands- two pairs functional and two pairs non-functional. Their positions are described as follows: one pair inguinal, one pair post abdominal and two pairs pectoral. Only the two posterior pairs are completely functional. Droplets of milk can sometimes be obtained from the pectoral mammae. No galactophores were found in these anterior pairs of mammae, but all other mammae contained from one to four galactophores per nipple (Sowls, 1984). Milk secretion gradually declines in the terminal stage of lactation and an estimate of lactation length was between 6 and 8 weeks. The storage area for milk in the lactating sow is very small and the conformation of the inguinal region during periods of non-lactation is little different from its shape during lactation. The gross composition of the milk of the collared peccary is as follows: 3.1% to 4.0% Fat, 6.7% Lactose, 5.1% to 5.7% Total Protein, and 16.2% to 16.7% Total Solids (Sowls, 1984). The milk of the peccary seems to have a higher content of total solids than that of Bos. species cattle. This review thus suggests the following reproductive target performance coefficients as seen in Table 4. Mayor Aparicio (2004) have produced two tables on the reproductive parameters of the Peccary. The first one compares the reproductive performances at two locations, Table 5, and the second one is the reproductive potential based on the reproductive parameters measured, Table 6. Mayor Aparicio (2004) drew five conclusions on the reproductive system and reproduction in the collared peccary and they are listed below: 1. The Wild Collared Peccary female from Northeastern Peruvian Amazon shows different morphometric and structural features in the tunica mucosa of the uterine Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [83] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] tubes, uterine horns, cervix and vaginal epithelium, and ovary in accordance with the reproductive state of the female. 2. The features of the external genitalia and vaginal cytology are useful indicators of oestrus and the period of sexual recepitivity in the female of the collared peccary maintained in captivity in the Eastern Amazon. 3. Transabdominal ultra sonography is an efficient tool for the early pregnancy diagnosis and prediction of gestational age. 4. Progesterone and oestradiol-17ß profiles in the pregnant female maintained in captivity in the Eastern Amazon have been monitored. 5. The lactating female can show an ovulatory and fertile post-partum oestrus at the early post-partum period [as early as five days post-partum]. Table 4: Reproductive Features of the Collared Peccary (Peccari tajacu or Tayassu tajacu) Characteristic Value or Status Source Gestation length 138-158 days Sowls (1984); Bissonette (1982); Lochmiller et al (1987); Anon (1999) ; Mayor Aparicio (2004) Length of estrous cycle 22.6-34 days Sowls (1984); Pinheiro et al (1997); Anon (1999) Duration of estrus 3.4-4.8 days Sowls (1984); Pinheiro et al (1997); Anon (1999); Mayor Aparicio (2004) Fertile Lactational estrus Exists Mayor Aparicio (2004) Lactational anestrus Exists Sowls (1984); Pinheiro et al (1997) Weaning to conception 3-17 days Sowls (1984, 1997) Sexual Maturity 8-14 months. Sowls (1984); Schmidt (1991); Anon (1999); Mayor Aparicio (2004) Litter size 1 – 3 Litter/ year 2 Litter Interval 181-195 days Birth Weight ±600g Lactation period 4 to 42 days Weaning age As early as 4-5 days Pinheiro et al (1997) Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [84] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Table 5: Reproductive parameters of the Collared Peccary (Peccari tajacu or Tayassu tajacu), comparing the exploitation of Belem (Brazil) (n=26) and Iquitos (Peru) (n=6) Reproductive Belem Iquitos Parameter Age at first parturition 615 ± 290.9 521 ± 84.1 (days) Age at first parturition 20.5 ± 9.7 17.4 ± 2.8 (months) Age at first conception 475 ± 290.9 381 ± 84.1 (days) Age at first conception 15.8 ± 9.7 12.7 ± 2.8 (months) Length of estrus 4.22 ± 1.27 (days) Length of Gestation 138.3 ± 5.3± (days) Off spring per 1.89 ± 0.41 1.68 ± 0.49 parturition Male : Female 0.46 / 0.54 0.52 / 0.48 In the litter Post partum estrus (days post partum) 8.6 ± 2.4 Parturition Interval 179.2 ± 55.6 227 ± 82.6 (days) Parturition Interval 155.2 ± 15.0 176 ± 21.2 excluding data >200 days (days) Parturition to conception 39.3 ± 55.5 87.0 ± 82.6 interval (days) Parturitions per year 2.35 ± 0.43 2.1 ± 0.2 (excluding data >200 days parturition interval Annual offspring per 4.44 ± 1.8 3.34 ± 1.2 female Source: Mayor Aparicio (2004) Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [85] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Table 6: Reproductive potential of the Collared Peccary based on the information in Table 5 Reproductive Belem Iquitos Parameter Age at first conception 241 days/ 321 days/ 8 months 11 months Age at first parturition 381 days/ 461 days/ 13 months 15 months Gestation Length 135 days Litter Size 2.33 2 Post Partum Estrus 5 days (days) Parturition Interval 143 days 154 days (days) Services per conception 1 1 Parturitions per year 2.55 2.37 (excluding data >200 days parturition interval Annual offspring per 5.95 4.34 female Source: Mayor Aparicio (2004) Weaning Weaning was suggested to be possible at as early as 4-5 days (Pinheiro et al 1997). HOUSING AND ENCLOSURES Peccaries reared in captivity have been housed under a variety of systems. Under experimental conditions a semi–extensive system was utilized by Lochmiller et al (1987). This consisted of an outdoor enclosure 30m x 30m, housing 16 adults ranging in age three years and above. Thus a stocking density of 56m²/head was used. Under intensive conditions, pairs of pregnant females have been housed in covered pens 3m x 2m, stocking density 3m²/head (Lochmiller et al, 1987 and NRC, 1991). At the Emperor Valley Zoo (Trinidad and Tobago), peccaries on display are accommadated in an enclosure 30m x 30m. Within this semi-natural environment, the mixed population has, over the years, ranged from 16 to 25 animals with a stocking density of 36m² to 56m²/ head (Charles, 1997). At the Berlin Zoo, white-lipped peccaries were housed in an outdoor enclosure of 500m², at a stocking density of 51m²/head (Fradrich, 1995). In Trinidad, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, a private keeper has been housing peccaries in concrete pens [3 m x 2m], with wire sides 1 m from the floor [see Figure # 15]. In Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [86] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] these pens, 1 male with 3 to 5 females and their offspring have been housed. However, no new animal introductions have been tolerated by the any of the groups, so that all breeding groups including the offspring must be always separated from the other groups. This facility contains four (4) such pens, all separated by hinged and swinging gates so that the animals can be moved around. One pen must always be kept empty to facilitate movement. There have been no instances of disease or reproductive problems. The pens were washed daily and animals have been fed on market vegetable waste (Personal Communication James, 2001). In developing housing facilities, consideration has to be made with respect to the behavior of the species of animal. Particular interest is to be placed on the peccary’s high level of socialization and low tolerance for unfamiliar animals of all kinds and humans. Figure 15: Collared peccaries in concrete pens in Mausica, Trinidad, Trinidad and Tobago. BEHAVIOUR Peccaries are a gregarious and highly socialized species, living in groups of sizes ranging from 2-50, but groups of 5-15 are not uncommon (Charles, 1997; Byers and Bekoff, 1981; Nowak, 1991; Ellisor and Harwell, 1969). Males do not compete vigorously for estrus females (Anon, 1975; Charles, 1997; and Nowak, 1991). The level of hostility during mating was observed to be negligible (Charles, 1997). Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [87] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] In free-ranging peccaries the alpha male copulates with most of the estrus females in the herd. Short tending bonds, which may last from a few hours to several days, were observed between the alpha male and estrus females Bissonette (1982) citing Lowe (1970). In penned conditions, females are dominant over males in most situations Bissonette (1982) citing Sowls (1974). Though tolerant of other herd members, strange peccaries are never able to join new herds (Bayers and Bekoff, 1981; Pinheiro et al, 1997; James, 2001). Thus high genetic relatedness within groups may occur (Bissonette, 1982). Oldenberg et al (1985) and Ellisor and Harwell (1969) referred to some level of interchange of males between herds. The interchange between territorial groups in free ranging herds appears infrequent and association between groups depended on their level of contact and appears to be related to their scent gland (Bissonett, 1982). There was little aggression observed during feeding. Bayers and Bekoff (1981) revealed that there was tolerance between adults and juveniles, who enjoy much liberty up to 5 months. RESTRAINT AND HANDLING Peccaries intolerance to unfamiliar members of the same species and humans, and their very large and sharp canines result in these animals being potentially dangerous to handle, and must always be treated with respect and caution. Corral Traps [8 metres wide x 9 metres long] and Aluminum Deer Traps [1.3 metres wide x 3 metres long x 1.3metres high] have been reported on for trapping peccaries in the wild (Neal, 1959). It was suggested that the best time for trapping was during the dry season close to water holes. Animals were restrained by the use of a hog snare [see Figure 16]. Figure 16: Restraint of collared peccaries using hog snare consisting of a small cable inserted in a hollow pipe, with a loop at one end inserted behind the upper canine teeth and pulled taut. Source: Neal 1959 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [88] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Various other methods have been used to handle peccaries in captivity one such chemical method is Nembutal [pentobarbital sodium] 60mg/ml intraperitoneally; another is Surital [thiamylal sodium] 25mg/cc and finally Chloroform [2ml liquid chloroform on a piece of cloth over the animal’s nose] were used as anesthetics to sedate collared peccaries (Neal, 1959). With Nembutal the animals became anesthetized within 5 to 95 minutes and remained so for 4 to 27.5 hours; with Surital the animals became anesthetized between 15 to 60 minutes but the duration was unpredictable; and with Chloroform the peccaries became anesthetized within 1 minute and could be handeled safely for 5 to 15 minutes. It was concluded that Chloroform was the best means of sedation. In French Guiana Zoletil 100 [Tiletamine 250 mg and Zolazepam 250 mg] at the recommended dosage of 1.5 ml/15 to 25 kg of the peccary’s live weight was used. The animals were tranquilized in about 10 to 15 minutes and took at least six (6) hours to awaken [Personal Experience of Gail Young in 2003 and 2004 and Gary Garcia in 2004]. HEALTH AND DISEASE Peccaries have been reported by Sowls (1984, 1997) to have a variety of parasites in all their range. These included the sucking louse (Pecaroeus javalina), ticks, chiggers, biting lice and fleas. Internal parasites included nematodes, flukes, tapeworms and protozoa. Respiratory diseases occurred in the northern fringe of the range in Texas as a result of the changes in weather and the coming of winter. Digestive tract disorders with severe diarrhoea were observed. The causative organisms were found to be Salmonella muenchen and Escherichia coli. Kidney hemorrhaging was also noted in captive animals and was found to be a result of oxalic acid poisoning (Sowls 1984). Two types of eye conditions were noted among both wild and captive peccaries. They are listed below.  A white exudate, under the eyes of isolated animals or captive old adults, which turned to a crust. This was removed when animals were returned to communal conditions and animals were able to rub their jowls and faces over each other’s scent glands.  An acute eye infection, which results in blindness if not arrested by antibiotics (Sowls, 1984). Skin diseases were uncommon. Some animals did show parakeratosis with heavy crusting and dry-cracking, horny material on the head and body. James (personal communication in 2001) found no apparent disease problems with the animals intensively reared on concrete floors which were washed daily. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [89] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] In French Guiana under the conditions shown in Figure 17 a colony of about 50 peccaries displayed no apparent health problems over an eight-year period [Neyrant Peccary owner Personal communication]. Because peccaries have been associated with true pigs, studies inferring the peccary as a source of infection for the pig have been conducted. The collared peccary was found to be resistant to African Swine Fever and susceptible to Hog Cholera, Rinderpest and two strains of the Vesicular Exanthema Virus of swine. The peccary was found to be less susceptible to Vesicular Stomatitis and not as severely affected by Foot and Mouth disease as the domestic hog (Sowls 1984). Figure 17: A collared peccary colony in French Guyana at Neyrant Sawmill. Studies with endo-parasites were reported from Brazil [Coser Junior et al (2002)] and from Peru [Gálvez et al (2004)]. Coser Junior et al (2002) reported on a group of 24 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [90] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] animals reared in captivity made up of 8 weaned animals (60 days), 8 young animals (6 to 10 months) and 8 adult animals (over 11 months of age). The group consisted of equal numbers of males and females. Of the animals studied 87.5% were found to have parasites. All (100%) of the weaned and adult animals had parasites, while 62.5% of the growing animals had parasites. The frequency (% of the total number of animals infected) of the parasite species encountered were as follows: Blantidium coli 70.8%, Entamoeba hystolyca 33.3%, Ascaris suum 8.3%. It was concluded that endo-parasites occurred in all physiological stages of collared peccaries reared in captivity, and that it was necessary to improve the sanitation protocol. In the study by Gálvez et al (2004) 27 adults were monitored over two years. They monitored the animals for blood parameters [haematological composition] and the presence of Leptospirosis antibodies. In 100% of the cases positive results were obtained for presence of antibodies for Leptospirosis. In addition weekly faecal monitoring was done and they identified the presence of Strongyloides sp., Ascaris sp., Strongylus sp., and Balantidium coli. Tables 7 and 8 presents the blood profiles reported. Table 7: Blood and Renal Profiles of Peccaries reared in captivity Blood Parameters Mean Range Total Proteins (g/dl) 8.5 7.1-10.9 Albumin (g/dl) 4.4 3.2-5.6 Bilrubin Direct (mg/dl) 0.2 0.0-0.5 Total Bilirubin (mg/dl) 0.7 0.2-1.3 Cholesterol (mg/dl) 93.2 59.2-150.8 Alanine Amino 26.5 12-54 Transferase (IU/l) Asparate Amino 15.9 5-34 Transferase (IU/l) Fosfatasa Alcalina (IU/l) 27.5 7.8-62.1 Urea (mg/dl) 58.1 39.0-81.0 Creatinine (Serum) (mg/dl) 2.2 1.4-3.3 Source: Galvez et al (2004) A parasite control programme was instituted using Ivermectina [T1, T2 and T3] and Doramectina 1% [T4, T5, T6] in doses of 1 ml, 0.75 ml and 0.5 ml per animal respectively. The results showed a reduction in the parasite load due to treatments as shown in Tables 10 and 11. Good parasite control was therefore obtained for up to sixty (6) days. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [91] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Tale 8: Haematology of Captive Reared Peccary in Peru Parameters Tayassu tajacu Average Range 6 3 Erythrocytes (x 10 /mm ) 8.46 9.24-12.35 3 3 Leukocytes (x 10 /mm ) 11.39 8.00-15.2 Hematocrit (PCV) (%) 44.4 43-52 Haemoglobin (g/100ml) 16.3 15.7-19.3 Esinophils (%) 10.5 7.14 Basophils (%) 0 0 Lymphocytes (%) 57.5 48-69 Monocytes (%) 0 0 Neutrophils Banded (%) 0 0 Neutrophils Segmented (%) 31.88 21-40 MCV (fl) 53.01 MCM (pg) 19.4 MCMC (g/dl) 36.56 Source: Galvez et al (2004) Table 9: Parasites present in captive reared Tayassu tajacu Single Ascaris sp Strongyloides sp Protozoos Infection flagelados (22.2%) 0% 11% 11% Mixed Protozoos + Protozoos + Ascaris Infection Strongyloides Ascaris +Strongyloides (77.8%) 44.6% 22.4% 11% Negatives 0% Source: Galvez et al (2004) Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [92] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Table 10: Results from the treatment with Ivermectina in Tayassu tajacu Sampling 24-72 hours 15 days 30 days 60 days Periods 1st sampling 2nd sampling 3rd sampling 4th sampling Treatment Pos (%) Neg (%) Pos (%) Neg (%) Pos (%) Neg (%) Pos (%) Neg (%) T1(1ml/ animal) 75 25 0 100 0 100 0 100 T2(0.75 ml/animal) 25 50 0 100 0 100 0 100 T3(0.5 ml/animal) 75 25 0 100 0 100 0 100 1st sampling 2nd sampling 3rd sampling 4th sampling Pos Neg Treatment (%) (%) Pos (%) Neg (%) Pos (%) Neg (%) Pos (%) Neg (%) T4 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 T5 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 T6 75 25 50 50 25 75 25 75 Source: Galvez et al (2004) Table 11 presents the data of the presence of antibodies for leptospirosis in collard peccaries reared in captivity in Iquito in Peru. Table 12 presents the causes of mortality in peccaries reared in this same location. Table 11: Presence of antibodies for Leptospirosis in peccaries reared in captivity in Iquitos Peru Sereotypes of Leptospira Presence(%) interrogans autumnales 11.1 Bataviae 11.1 Borinacana 25.9 icterohemorragica 7.4 Tarasovi 14.8 bratislava 25.9 ballum S102 7.4 copenhageni 3.7 100 Source: Galvez et al (2004) Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [93] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Table 12: Causes of Mortality in Tayassu pecari reared in the Peruvian Amazon Physiological Sex Cause State Subadult F Miasis in the Oral Cavity Growing M Esophagitis Subadult F Hypovolaemic shock Adult M Malnutrition, Secondary Pneumonia Growing F Multiple trauma Adult F Intestinal obstruction, Endotoxaemia Growing F Multiple Trauma Surce: Galvez et al (2004) UTILIZATION AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS CITES Status Exploitation of the collared peccary for the international market has resulted in this animal being scheduled as an Appendix II species under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) (Emmons 1990). The meat is sold in Peru and Suriname in the fresh, salted and smoked [Rengifo Pinedo and Navarro Torres (2002), Galvez et al (1999) and personal observations by Gary Garcia]. Table 13 presents the chemical composition of peccary and other meats. What is most noteworthy is the low fat or ether extract content of peccary meat. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [94] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Table 13: The nutritive Value of Peccary meat [as fed basis/ fresh] Animal % Crude Protein % Ether %Ca % P Extract Sajino/ 20.9 1.24 Peccary/Quenk/Javelina (P. tajacu, T. tajacu) Majaz 19.6 7.53 (Agouti paca) Deer/ Venado (Mazama americana) Yellow foot tortoise (Geochelone denticulaa) Cuy / Guinea pig 19.0 to 24.4 1.6 0.29 (Cavia porcellus) Rabbit 20.4 2.0-8.0 0.18-0.28 Iguana 24.4 0.9 0.25 (Iguana iguana) Pollo/ Chicken 16.0 to 21.6 2.4 to 31.5 0.01 – 0.23 (Gallus domesticus) Cerdo/ Pork 9.1 to 17.5 13.2 to 57.0 0.06 to (Sus scrofa) 0.13 Vacuna/ Cattle 13.7 to 21.4 2.4 to 41.4 0.04 to .16 (B. Taurus, B. indicus) Ovino/ Mutton 13.0 to 19.0 0.9 to 39.8 0.05 to 0.1 (Ovis aries) Cabra/ Goat (Capra hircus) Fish (Sardines) 19.0 8.5 0.03 0.21 Agouti (Dasyprocta 22.2 2.0 0.19 leporina) Source: Galvez et al (1999), Rengifo Pinedo and Navarro Torres (2002), Ensminger, Oldfield and Heinemann (1990), CFNI (1974), Chang Yen, Kistow, Deonarayan and Garcia 2005 (Unpublished). TRADE STATUS Peccaries are useful for their meat, for sport hunting and hides. In fact these hides produce some of the finest leather. Redford and Robinson (1991) reported on the international trade in peccary hide, citing Broad (1984) and Huidberg-Hansen (1970e) who indicated that the collared peccary leather trade in Europe and Japan involved as many as 2,013,006 skins per year. A German importer trading with Paraguay made an annual purchase of 36,000 hides. From Argentina between the period 1976 to 1979, some 172,371 pelts, to the value of US $1.025 million, were traded. The Mexican wild animal trade valued a collared peccary hide at US $5. In the northern limits of it’s range, the species is gaining status as a big game species, here habitat preservation is a priority (Sowls 1984). In Trinidad and Tobago the collared peccary serves basically as an Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [95] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] indigenous source of meat, a delicacy that was sold at an average of US $10/kg (Asieby, 1986). In French Guiana it is marketed to restaurants and both rural and urban consumers (Bemelmans 2003). This would be further elaborated on in Part 6 of this manual. THE CASE FOR A PRODUCTION MODEL In order to establish an economically viable industry around the peccary there will have to be competition with other already established livestock species. Improvements will be necessary in the areas of reproduction, growth rate, and feeding and nutrition. Any mechanisms, that could be developed to reduce overhead costs of production and the time to market, will serve to propel the collared peccary into the realm of a viable livestock industry. However, its longevity plus the ability of females to be fecund for up to 15 years are two key features of this species that gives it an advantage over most of the other domestic species (Tables 6 and 14). This animal is now, however, being viewed as a candidate for domestication. under captive intensive or semi-intensive conditions as a new livestock species for domestication. This effort will aim at satisfying consumer demand for peccary meat in the first instance. Some of the assumptions which could be obtained within the model will be: (i) to grow-out animals to a market weight in 40 weeks, (ii) a gestation period of 146 days, (iii) a neo-nate weight of 0.623kg and (iv) a slaughter weight of 18kg. Bissonette (1982) and Nowark (1991) have both given accounts of animals exceeding 25kg live weight. Based on records in Sowls (1984), the growth rate of the collarded peccary has been calculated at 62g/day. However, if the animal is to be commercialized improvements will have to be made in growth rate through feeding improvements. Table 14 compares performances between the collared peccary, the domestic pig and the goat reared under tropical conditions. This table suggests that the output from a peccary production model could better be compared with that of a tropical goat production system. Hellgren and Lochmiller (2000) reviewed the literature on the peccaries in North America, and they identified 93 references, none of which reported on intensive production modeling for this species. More recently Rengifo Pinedo and Navarro Torres (2002) presented the experiences of rearing of peccaries by families in which the fundamentals of a production model have been presented. Inagaki de Albuquerque et al (2004 a, b and c) also reported on their experience of intensively rearing peccaries in North Eastern Brazil from 1997 to 2004. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [96] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Table 14: Growth and Production Parameters for the Collared Peccary, Domestic Pig and Tropical Goat Characteristics Collared Peccary Domestic Pig Goat Body Length (cm) 440-575 - - Tail Length (cm)  2.54 - - Mature Body Weight (kg) 18 100 80 Mature Body Weight (kg) 18 100 60-70 tropical goats Birth Weight (kg) 0.623 to 0.75 0.9 1.5-2.0 Weaning Weight (kg) 7.0 kg Market / Slaughter Weight (kg) 18 to 25 kg 90 32-36 Market Age/ Slaughter Age 40 weeks 22-26 24-32 (weeks) Dressing Percentage (%) 62% to 74% to 80% 60-65% 40-45% Growth Rate (g/day) 62 to 88 g/ day 570-675 100-150 Fertility 95% Parturitions / year 2 2.5 1.5 [3 parturitions every 2 years] Number / litter 2 8 to 14 1 to 5 Number weaned 2 1 to 5 Mortality during suckling 0 % 5 to 20 % 5 to 40 % Average days to weaning 45-60 days 28 to 42 days 60 t0 90 days First Selection for Breeding 2 months 2 months 2 months Second Selection for Breeding 7 months Third Selection for Breeding 10 months Forth Selection for Breeding 24 months Expected Reproductive Longevity ….to 15 years 5 to 10 years 5 to 10 years [Note: animals can live to 25 years] Goats and Domestic Pigs: Payne (1990) Collared peccary: Sowls (1984), Coser Junior (2002), Rengifo Pinedo and Navarro Torres (2002), Joao Batista Barreto (2003 Personal Communication), Inagaki de Albuquerque et al (2004 a, b, and c) Dressing Percentage (DP) = [Carcass Weight/ Live Weight] x 100/1 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [97] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] CONCLUDING COMMENTS AND RECOMMENDTIONS The review of the literature and discussions held with Zookeepers and persons interested in wildlife conservation and production suggest that the collared peccary could be reared in captivity with a good survival and reproduction rate and longevity. The evidence contained in the literature on the digestive system and nutrition of the peccary suggests that the collared peccary:  is not strictly a foregut fermentor (ruminant-like digestion);  is not strictly a hindgut fermentor (pig-like digestion); and  may be both a foregut and hindgut fermentor, i.e., it has a flexible digestive system which may be an adaptive mechanism so that the best digestion take place based on the types of feed available in the diverse habitats of this animal species. Some assumptions for a collared peccary production model therefore are that it could better be compared with that of a tropical goat production system. Sufficient data exists to properly design and test an intensive collared peccary production model. It is recommended that this could be best done at a zoo, which may already have a peccary- breeding colony. This would also promote ex-situ conservation which would complement the in-situ ungulate conservation and wildlife management being suggested by Bodmer et al (1988). The work presently being done in French Guiana is therefore quite important towards achieving this (Anon, 1990, and Young, Steil and Garcia, 2004). Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [98] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Part 4 The Collared Peccary Production Manual [A Practical Guide for Intensive Collared Peccary Production] Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [99] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] HOW TO START SETTING UP AN INTENSIVE COLLARED PECCARY PRODUCTION SYSTEM Some Considerations before Setting up a Wildlife/ Non-domestic Animal Production Unit Before setting up your production unit there is some information that you need to get. It would be important for you to first obtain copies of the laws and regulations of your country or state that governs the keeping, rearing and breeding of domestic and non- domestic animal species. This you would need to know in order to get permission to keep animals as well as to rear non-domestic species. Permission to be a Wildlife Farmer/ Eleveur des Animaux Sauvage/ Zoocriadero/ Criadouro Animais Silvestres This permission must be obtained from the relevant authorities as follows: Trinidad and Tobago: The Wildlife Unit, Forestry Division, Ministry of Public Utilities and the Environment, St Joseph Farm, Valsayn, Trinidad, Trinidad and Tobago, French Guiana: The Office of the Prèfect of French Guyana Brazil: Instituto Brasileiro do Meio-Ambientes dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis [IBAMA], Ministerio do Meio-Ambiente, dos Recursos Hidricos e da Amazonia Legal, Figure 18: IBAMA in Amazonas, Brazil Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [100] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Peru: Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales [INRENA], Ministerio de Agricultura de Peru. Venezuela: MARN, Oficiana Nacional de Diversidad Biologica In other countries: you would need to make enquiries with the following ministries, Agriculture, The Environment and Natural Resources, Forestry or other relevant authorities. The Principles behind setting up an Intensive Animal Production System Now that we have presented to you with what is known about the Peccary we would now like to outline for you the philosophical basis used in approaching or developing intensive animal production systems. This approach is based on the following two pillars: 1. an understanding of the factors affecting animal production systems and 2. a knowledge of the physiological states of the animal species in question. What you would need to note at this point is that there is an interaction between them; and this interrelationship will determine the nature of the production system. The reason for this is that at each physiological state the effect of each factor is different OR the needs of and the threats to the animals’ survival will be different. But what does each pillar consist of? We shall explore each one next. The Factors Affecting Animal/ Livestock Production There are five (5) factors affecting the production of any animal species. They are: 1. Breeding and Reproduction, 2. Health and Disease, 3. Nutrition and Feeding, 4. Housing and Environment: Comfort needs and 5. Economic and Socio-economic. In Part 3 of this manual we attempted to organize the information known on the collared peccary based on these five (5) factors listed above. These factors affecting livestock production can be further simplified as follows: 1. Genetic [Breeding and Reproduction System] 2. Health [Disease Prevention and Management System] 3. Nutrition [The Diets and the methods of Feeding make up a Feeding System] 4. Environment [The housing and Animal Welfare System] 5. Economic and Marketing [The Animal Products Harvesting and Marketing System] Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [101] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Cost and availability of Land Cost of animal inputs Cost of non animal inputs Market price of the products produced. The first three factors can be easily controlled or improved through scientific research and improved management at the farm level. The fourth factor is god given, but science and management could be used to help the animals perform and produce more efficiently within the given environment. The fifth factor, however, is the one which determines the profitability and ultimately the economic sustainability of the production system. It, however is not always under the direct control of the farmers or producers. Physiological States What is “a” or “the” Physiological State of an animal? Before we attempt a definition here, it is essential that we first put the animal in question, (whatever the species), into perspective. We shall first need to know the following about the animal: - the species - its sex - is it in early growth? - is it in late growth? - is it undergoing puberty [the changes necessary for going into the reproductive phase of life] ? - is the animal being prepared for reproduction? - what is its reproductive state? - is the animal lactating? - what is its productive state (or growth state or desired growth rate)? - is it a working animal and what type of work is it doing? - what is the weight of the animal? The physiological state of an animal can be seen therefore as a description of an individual animal or similar animals within a species, from the standpoint of their stage in their life cycle or productive state. This would then indicate to the Animal Manager or Production Facility Developer what the animals’ needs would be for: - Nutrients - Housing and Environmental comfort - Disease prevention - Reproductive management, and - Harvesting and Marketing the animal products. Each physiological state of an animal creates different types of requirements for the animals’ comfort, well-being, and productive capability. This is in response to the Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [102] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] animals’ immediate needs for maintenance, growth, production (eggs, milk, plumage), work and reproduction. The effect of the Factors Affecting Animal Production on Wild Animals Reared in Captivity: To fully appreciate the responsibility of the persons rearing animals in captivity, one must first appreciate that in the wild the animals live within a habitat in which they: - have a place to live in safety and relative comfort (housing), - get their food (nutrition and feeding), - are able to locate suitable mates and to make their nests or reproduction sites for caring for their young (breeding and reproduction) and - are free to isolate themselves and avoid diseases and predation (disease prevention and control ). Therefore when wild animals are kept in captivity all of the above requirements have to be provided, so that the keeper of these captive animals now has to ensure that all the functions performed by the habitat will now be provided within the new captive environment. This responsibility is increased when working in intensive production systems as outlined below. Intensive Animal Production Systems We would now like to turn your attention to the concept and practice of intensification and its requirements and consequences. Intensification This involves the bringing together of many animals in a single location or in close proximity to each other with consequent problems due to increasing animal population densities. Features of intensification - use of limited land, usually for the animals only and not for the production of feed - high animal to land ratio - high levels of technical and managerial inputs are required, particularly with regard to feeding and the prevention of diseases - variable quantities of capital outlays are required - very labor-demanding or may need forms of automation - expected product output required. The Implications of Intensification on Production - Animals have to be fed optimal diets for the desired commodity to be produced. They must also be watered and have timely waste removal; Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [103] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] - Preventive techniques have to be instituted to avoid the introduction and rapid spread of diseases [Adequate disease prevention and hygiene]. - Animals’ social behavior needs to be considered and catered for; and - The design of the housing plays a key role in facilitating all of the above [Provision of a suitably modified environment for rearing]. The Role of Housing and Equipment under intensive systems of production The roles of housing and equipment under intensive systems of production are as follows: 1. to protect the animal from the environment, predators and theft; 2. to ensure the timely and controlled supply of feed nutrients and water; 3. to exclude disease causing organisms and to eliminate or minimize the possibility of and spread of diseases; 4. to protect the animals from trauma; 5. to protect man and to facilitate the ease of handling of animals through : a) special features and considerations for handling, restraint and treatment of animals, b) having the animals arranged into different physiological states and ages; 6. to facilitate timely and efficient removal of waste; 7. to enable the grouping of animals into manageable units which could make the easy observation of animals individually; 8. to enable the easy handling of animals for either product collection ( e.g. eggs) and or the sorting of animals for marketing; 9. to modify the environment to alleviate any stress which would be constraints to productivity; and 10. to provide specialist type of equipment to facilitate slaughter and processing. The Key elements of livestock housing under intensive conditions therefore are: 1. Water Supply 2. Power Supply 3. Enclosure, Housing and or Handling Requirements based on species needs. On this basis the next section deals with approaches to developing livestock production systems. Approaches to Developing Animal Production Systems/Concepts in Developing Intensive Animal Species Production Modeling In this section you will be exposed to those concepts and considerations which must be used when designing any “Animal Production System”. This information would be important as one day you may be asked to design a system without all the system’s components being known. What you should then try to do is to gather all that is known about a more popular related species within the same family as follows: Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [104] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] - the nature of the digestive system [Digestion and Feeding] - the nature of the habitat and nesting sites of the species under consideration [Housing and Environment] - the reproductive system and habits [Reproduction and Breeding] - the social habits of the animal [Animal Behavior] - diseases which affect the species [Disease Prevention and Control] Further considerations..... The objectives of the production system must be clearly identified, established or known from the start in order to identify which physiological states would have to be included in the production model or system. The source of the animals for the production system to be established will also need to be identified as follows: wild-Caught/Captive Breeders, Wild-Caught Juveniles for growth, and other such groups. Considerations for species production modeling The following Box presents a list of the important considerations for species production modeling. Figure 19 presents within a pictorial context the elements presented within the Box. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [105] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Box 1: CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPECIES PRODUCTION MODELING The Species: I. The Objectives of the Production System or Model II. The Species Life Cycle III. The Physiological States for the Production Flow IV. Performance Coefficients or Growth Parameters V. Reproductive Parameters VI. Animal Specific Needs as influenced by the Factors Affecting Animal Production Needs: Housing Nutrition and Feeding Health and Disease Control Reproductive Management VII. Animal Behavior and Sociology VIII. Design of the Physical Environment Required - Thermal Environment, Lower Critical Temperature (LCT), Upper Critical Temperature (UCT) and Thermo Neutral Zone (TNZ) - Ventilation - Humidity - Air Quality - Housing System [ Space requirement; Trucking and Transport Considerations; Floor and Floor Surface type] IX. Management Routines Required - Daily - Weekly - Monthly - Seasonally - Annually [X] Variable Inputs Required [XI] Output Expectations of the Model/ Production Process Flow Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [106] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] OBJECTIVES OF THE SYSTEM I FACTORS AFFECTING ANIMAL PRODUCTION O N THE PRODUCTION SYSTEM U P THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE FACILITY T U THE ANIMAL P The Species Life Cycle Physiological States Performance Coefficients T Animal Behavior and Psychology U Animal Production Needs Housing Feeding Health Reproduction S T   S    MANAGEMENT ROUTINES Daily, Weekly, Monthly, Seasonally, Annually Figure 19: Concepts for developing an animal production system for any species. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [107] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] THE OBJECTIVES OF THE PECCARY PRODUCTION SYSTEM In order to develop your Peccary production system you must first begin with the end in mind, i.e. what are the objectives of your production system and what products or animals are you going to sell? This would determine what you do. These objectives could be one or all of the following:  To produce surplus weaned and culled animals for meat  To produce breeding stock  To produce quality skins for tanning  To produce animals for exporting to a zoo. This would determine at what stage of the animal’s life cycle you will intervene. To establish this one must know the peccary’s life cycle which is shown below. THE LIFE CYCLE OF THE PECCARY Adult Male Adult [Peccaram] Female [Peccasow] Peccasuckling Peccayoungram Peccayoungsow Figure 20: The Life Cycle of the Peccary THE PHYSIOLOGICAL STATES OF THE QUENK/PECCARY From the design above the peccary has five basic physiological states which can be further subdivided as follows: Breeding Females [Peccasow] Pregnant and Lactating Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [108] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Pregnant Not Pregnant Breeding Males [Peccaram] Suckling Young Peccary [Peccasuckling] Young Growing Post Weaning but Sexually Immature Females [Peccayounsow] Young Growing Post Weaning but Sexually Immature Males [Peccayoungram] Sexually Mature Females [Replacement Peccasow] Sexually Mature Males [Replacement Peccaram] These states allow for the peccaries to be grouped into several production units which are now outlined. PRODUCTION UNITS At least four (4) production units/areas can be envisaged with a process flow as shown in Figure 21. Each unit is now described. Unit 1: Breeding Unit [Group Housing] Breeding Females [Peccasow] Breeding Males [Peccaram] Suckling Young Peccary [Peccasuckling] Ratio of Peccaram: Peccasow = 2: 5 to 3: 12 Note: 1. Since peccaries are very social animals which do not welcome strangers into the group, at least two (2) breeding males should be in each breeding group so that in the event that something happens to one of the breeding males there is an automatic replacement already within. 2. Breeding males within a group do not compete aggressively as is seen with other species. 3. As some peccaries may demonstrate lactational anestrous it is necessary to wean as early as possible [in less than four weeks], to get the females back on heat and quickly able to become pregnant again. Unit 2: Grow Out Unit/ Replacement Breeders Unit [Group Housing] Young Growing Post Weaning but Sexually Immature Females [Peccayoungsow] Young Growing Post Weaning but Sexually Immature Males [Peccayoungram] Note: 1. This would consist of the weaned animals. As weaning could take place after one week or up to about four months, it would be necessary for us to determine up to what age young animals would tolerate new introductions into the group. 2. The majority of males from this group could be slaughtered at about six months. The larger and faster growing males should be kept with the females for reproduction. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [109] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 3. It would be necessary to have at least two of these units. Since the Peccary would be expected to breed year round the young growing animals would have a six month spread. Unit 3: Grow Out Unit/ Replacement Breeders Unit [Group Housing] Same situation as for unit 2, but would contain the younger animals. Unit 4: Utility Pen The utility pen is an enclosure that must always be kept empty. This is to facilitate movement of animal groups from one pen into a safe area when their pen has to be cleaned or repaired or if an animal or animals have to be isolated for treatment or special attention. This utility pen is extremely important for ensuring human safety. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [110] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] PECCARY PRODUCTION UNITS PROCESS FLOW BREEDING UNIT Males: Females [ 2: 5 to 3: 12] Grow Out Unit/ Replacement Breeders Unit 1 Grow Out Unit/ Replacement Breeders Unit 2 Abattoir Peccary Meat [Pakira/ Porco de Monte] Figure 21: Peccary Production Units Process Flow Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [111] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] HERD PROJECTIONS Figure 22: Six Years Peccary Herd Projections beginning with 8 Peccasows and 2 Peccarams Projection Year Beginning of Year 1 8♀ + 2♂ 16p [ 8♀ + 8♂] x 75% 12p 8♀ + 6♀ 2♂ + 6♂ 14♀ 8♂ End of Year 1 22 Animals Beginning of Year 2 14♀ + 8♂ 11p 14♀ + 6♀ 8♂ + 5♂ 20♀ 13♂ 8♂ Killed or Sold End of Year 2 or evaluated for breeding 33 Animals 20♀+ 5♂ Beginning of Year 3 15p 20♀ + 8♀ 5♂ + 7♂ 28♀ 12♂ 40 Animals End of Year 3 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [112] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 28♀+ 5♂ Beginning of Year 4 21p 28♀ + 11♀ 10♂ +12♂ 39♀ 10♂ 12♂ Killed or Sold or evaluated for breeding 49 Animals End of Year 4 39♀+ 10♂ Beginning of Year 5 29p 39♀ +15♀ 10♂ + 14♂ End of Year 5 54♀ 24♂ 10♂ Killed or Sold 68 Animals 54♀+ 14♂ Begining of Year 6 81p 54♀ +41♀ 14♂ + 40♂ 95♀ 54♂ 149 Animals End of Year 6 Source: Young (2003) Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [113] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] FEATURES OF HOUSING FOR PECCARIES In considering the housing for the peccaries you must first take into consideration the unique animal behavior of these animals. Here types of housing for the peccaries are presented for you, they are (i) Intensive and (ii) Semi-extensive Types. Intensive Peccary Housing The practical intensive peccary housing must have four components of housing as follows: 1. Housing for the Breeding group [an enclosure for parturition and provisions for the temporary isolation of the newborn and mother must be included] 2. Housing for the group of weaned animals that are to be used to form new breeding groups 3. Housing for the Replacement Breeding Group/ New Breeding Group to be formed 4. Utility/Spare Pen, always to be kept vacant. The following figure is a conceptual layout for an intensive Peccary Production unit. Figure 23: A conceptual floor plan layout for an intensive Peccary Production unit. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [114] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Semi-Intensive/Semiextensive Peccary Housing I. Enclosures in French Guiana At a farmer At Soucomou Experimental Station II. Enclosures in Brazil (i) At Mr Neto’s Farm in Bahia (ii) At The Experimental Station of UESC in Bahia (iii) At Semi Commercial Farm 1 in Sao Paulo (iv) At Semi Commercial Farm 2 in Sao Paulo III. Enclosures in Peru At a mixed production centre [Peccary and Capybara Production] Figure 24: A Grassed Semi-intensive Production Pen for collared peccaries in Brazil [UESC] using chain linked fencing Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [115] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 25: A Grassed Semi-intensive Production Pens for collared peccaries in Brazil [UESC] using chain linked fencing Figure 26: A large dirt collared peccary enclosure in the dry area of Irece Bahia Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [116] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 27: Aspects of old experimental peccary Housing at Soucoumou in French Guiana Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [117] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 28: A Semi -intensive enclosure for peccaries on display at the Emperor Valley Zoo, Trinidad and Tobago Figure 29: Farmer enclosure [Semi-intensive system] in French Guiana Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [118] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 30: A Proposed Floor Plan for Unit 1: Breeding Unit [Intensive Group Housing] BACKGROUND TO THE PECCARY PRODUCTION MODEL The following experiences have demonstrated that peccaries could be reared intensively and reproduce successfully in captivity:  the experience of the Emperor Valley Zoo [Republic of Trinidad and Tobago], the West Berlin Zoo [Berlin, Germany], Zoo Zürich and many other Zoos in Europe and the Americas;  the experience of the Soucoumou Experimental Station in French Guiana;  the work of Natalia Inagaki de Albuquerque, Yvonnick Le Pendu and Diva Gumaraes at EMBRAPA in Belem, Brazil;  the work of Sergio Luiz Gama Nogueira Filho of the University of San Paulo and now at Universidad Estadual do Santa Cruz, Bahia, Brazil,  the work of Instituto Veterinario de Investigaciones Tropicales y de Altura, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Iquitos, Peru and  the work of Martha Rengifo Pinedo and Darvin Navarro Torres at the “Centro Piloto de Zoocria para la Amazonia” at La Universidad Nacional de La Amazonia [UNAP], Iquitos, Peru  the work of and Pedor Mayor Aparicio, in Brazil and Peru, and Hugo Galvez in Peru; and  the intensive backyard rearing experience of Desmond James in Mausica Trinidad, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Using the production units suggested above, target performance coefficients an now be suggested for the collared peccary as summarized in Table 15. Alongside these Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [119] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] appropriate husbandry practices would ensure that the animals’ health status would be maintained. Target Performance Coefficients for the Quenk or Collared Peccary The expected Target Animal Performance coefficients are summarised in Table 15. Table 15: Target Performance Coefficients and Signs of Estrus for the Quenk or Collared Peccary Age of Sexual Maturity 8-14 months [average 10.5 months] Average Weight at Sexual Maturity 16.4 to 20 kg Expected Longevity of a Peccasow 7 to 15 years Age at First Litter 13-15 months Breeding Year round Expected Female Longevity 10-15 years Length of Gestation 138-158 days Return to Oestrus after parturition if the 3-7 days young dies Lactational anoestrous NO Post partum Estrus As early as 5 days post partum Length of Oestrous Cycle 22.6 – 34.0 days Duration of Oestrus 3.4 –4.8 days Signs of Oestrus 1. Females seen riding other females and males in the herd. 2. Nose to nose greetings. 3. Receptive Females raise their tails. 4. Vulva is seen as being red and swollen for about four days during which time the oestrus [heat or receptivity] is exhibited. Number of Offspring per Litter (litter size) 1- 4 Minimum Number of Litters per Year per 1.25 (range 1-3) Female Number of days between successive parturition 143– 195 days (parturition interval) Average Birth Weight 623 g [0.6kg] Weaning Age 4 days to 8 weeks Weaning to Conception 3-17 days Weight of Mature Male 21.1kg Weight of Mature Female 19.0kg Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [120] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] SOME HUSBANDRY PRACTICES AND GUIDELINES Before starting the outlining of the husbandry guidelines, it must be pointed out to you that maintaining good husbandry practices is essential for the success of any animal enterprise. [A] Practical Peccary Housing  Enclosures within the Breeding Unit Pens for females to be isolated before parturition of the pregnant animals. o Within the pen of each breeding group there must be an area or an enclosure where the females can go to make their young a few days before parturition. The animals can be kept there for a few days after parturition to protect the new-born from aggressive adults.  Peccaries defecate in one location so that it is important to take this into consideration when setting up semi-intensive housing.  Peccaries tend to sleep in a location adjacent to where they defecate.  The water supply in an intensive system of production is important for all animals. Figure 31 shows that the troughs should not be greater than 10 cm wide to prevent the very young animals from falling in and drowning head-first. [B] Peccary Restraint in the Farm Situation Under very intensive systems of peccary production one could use two approaches of restraint:  always having an extra empty pen available for moving around the animals;  the use of a small corridor or chute linking the pens. Under semi-intensive systems of peccary production one could use two approaches:  the use of Chutes and /  the use of Corrals or Corridors [See Figures 32 and 33 for details] and/  the use of nets. Regardless of the approaches used for restraining peccaries the equipment must be sturdy and strong. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [121] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Details of the Water Supply System 10cm 1m 6m Details of the Water Trough 10 cm 10 10 cm cm Figure 31: Practical Peccary water Troughs at Mr. Neto’s Farm in Bahia, Brazil. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [122] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Details of the Chute or Corridor 400 cm 60 cm 20 to 40cm Moveable Gate or Barrier to movement Figure 32: Details of Peccary Corrals and Chute [Mr. Neto Farm, Bahia, Brazil] Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [123] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Figure 33: Aspects of Peccary Semi-extensive Enclosures at Monsieur Neyrat in French Guiana [1. Chute; 2. Feediong Area; 3. Fenceline towards the outside; 4. Fenceline towards the inside of the enclosure that consists of a wooded hillside; 5. Mr. Cicero Lallo (the UWI), Mr. Neyrat (Pilot Peccary Farmer in French Guiana) Miss Gail Young (Chambre d’ Agriculture & UWI); 6. Fenceline towards the roadside] Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [124] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Practical Management of Peccary Important Note of Caution 1. The experience of all our wildlife farmers (in particular Mr Desmond James) and that of Rengifo Pinedo and Navarro Torres (2002) strongly suggests that when working with peccaries one must be cautious at all times! Peccaries can be very unpredictable animals which are armed with four three-inch canines! 2. Long nets can be used very effectively in capturing and restraining peccaries that have been reared in captivity or from birth or very young, or animals that have been wild and caught very young. 3. It is necessary to have the animals become accustomed to being handled from very young. 4. When handling young animals always place your hands on the glands (the dorsal glands) and have your hands impregnated with the substance which it secretes. Then spread this with your hands smoothly and gently over the rest of the animal’s body. Some Important Animal Husbandry Techniques (a) Put individual feeders separated spatially within the pens. [Note: in Part 5 of this book when you visit the Peccary Farm of Mr. “NETO” you will observe that he spreads the grain and feed in lines all over the feeding area (Figures 101 to 102).] This avoids infighting. (b) Do not allow persons to ill-treat or startle the animals. (c) Always keep corral gates and enclosures closed to avoid unnecessary risks. (d) When going into corrals to capture animals you must always be armed with your long net. Always be accompanied by another person. And you must remember that these are animals in the process of domestication. (e) Always attempt to feed the animals at the same time each day. (f) Use of Long Nets for capturing animals Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [125] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 34: Dimension of a Net [Source: Rengifo Pinedo and Navarro Torres (2002)] Figure 35: Capture & Restraint with Net [Source; Rengifo Pinedo and Navarro Torres (2002)] Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [126] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] [C] Practical Peccary Feeding We must begin here by recapping the remarkable digestive system of the peccary, having characteristics of both a foregut fermentor [a stomach make up like that of cattle, sheep or goats] and a hindgut fermentor [a stomach and cecum like pigs and horses]. It therefore has a flexible digestive system [earlier described in Section 3]. It suggests that this animal has the ability to digest almost any feed material. It can therefore be fed forages/ grasses such as Elephant Grass/ Sugarcane, Banana stems, Grains and Tubers. In French Guiana Mr Neyrat feeds the peccaries various feeds including chopped whole sugarcane, cooked rice and green bananas which they eat with gusto. Feeding the Breeding Group The breeding group would contain open or non pregnant peccasows, animals in early, middle and late gestation as well as pregnant and lactating animals. It is therefore important that all efforts be made to ensure feed availability. Creep Feeding the Peccasuckling The dental development of Peccaries indicates that they are born with only canines and incisors, six (6) teeth out of a total of 38 permanent teeth. The temporary incisors and pre-molars begin to erupt at about 3 weeks. Therefore it is being suggested that they be fed a creep feed [a diet resembling pig starter] to ensure that animals could be successfully weaned at 4 weeks. Feeding the Growing Group Once animals are weaned at about 4 weeks of age put them into separate pens so that they could form a growing group that can be as large as possible. It is believed that animals could be mixed up to about 4 months of age without too much aggression being exhibited among them. Discontinue adding new animals to the group as soon as signs of aggression are observed. [D] Breeding and Culling Practices 1. Females could be bred for up to 15 years. 2. Animals born with deformities should not be used for breeding. 3. Avoid using aggressive males and females in breeding programmes. 4. Select males for breeding with good hind quarters and that have exhibited good growth rates. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [127] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Heat Detection OR Signs of heat/estrus in Peccasows Signs of heat for the peccasow include the following: 1. Females seen riding other females and males in the herd. 2. Nose to nose greetings. 3. Receptive Females Raise their tails. 4. Vulva is seen as being red and swollen. Management of the Peccasow, before, during and after parturition Always try to ensure that animals close to giving birth or in late pregnancy are not under nutritional stress. If the system is very intensive and you observe that a female is close to giving birth, she should be put into the isolation box or enclosure. Ensure that she has adequate water and avoid having her disturbed. After Parturition Allow the female and the peccasuckling to be within site and smell of the group, but not in contact with them, to ensure that the newborn will not be attacked by aggressive adults. The killing of Peccasucklings by aggressive adults have been indicated by Monsieur Neyrant in French Guyana to be his major cause of animal mortality over an eight year period. Selection of Replacements Replacement animals should be selected with the following criteria in mind: 1. Good growth rate 2. Good docility 3. Ease of handling In addition the females should come into first heat as close to eight months as possible and should conceive at the first or second service. Females should also be selected from mothers who were prolific: 1. 2 to 2.5 litters per year and 2. 2 to 4 animals per litter Males should come from fathers who had the following traits: 1. Good body conformation 2. Good Libido 3. Sired 2 to 4 animals per litter Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [128] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] [E] Daily Routines This includes observing the animals and their physical surroundings, including cleaning of the pens. Daily observation of animals for:  illness including feed intake  changes in stool/faeces texture  wounds and treat as soon as possible  signs of estrus  signs of pregnancy and onset of parturition  signs of them going off feed  ensuring that the water supply is OK and functioning optimally  any signs of abnormalities around the reproductive areas of the breeding males. Feeding of Animals:  It is important to ensure a regular daily feeding routine. Pens should be observed daily for signs of:  rodents becoming pests  the entry of snakes and other predators of the newborn  entry of other general predators. Daily Cleaning/ Washing of Concrete Floored Pens:  This is particularly important if the system is highly intensive. Washing the pens daily minimises any unpleasant smells and prevents files from breeding. [F] Monthly Routines These include  Preparing new pens for incoming weaned or adult animals;  Keeping an inventory of the animals and equipment used. [G] Seasonal Routines  Selection of future breeding animals and culling could be done either seasonally or as often as is possible. [H] Occasional Routines Considering that peccaries are sturdy animals, apart from those routines outlined above, others can be done as needed and these include: Animal Identification Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [129] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] This can be done 1. using the ear notching system as is done for pigs or 2. the use of ear tags (Figures 49 and 50). In both cases the wound initially created could result in ear infection. This can occur if the animal is being reared in a semi intensive unclean environment and the animals are not observed daily. Therefore the following simple steps should be adopted when attempting to identify animals. 1. irrigate the tip of the ear with water containing bleach or with a liquid sanitizer, and/or wipe the area clean with alcohol; 2. apply the ear tag or ear notch; 3. apply a screw worm spray on both sides of the wound and or 4. apply an antiseptic or antibiotic cream to both sides of the wound; 5. or spray an iodine solution on both sides of the wound and cover with petroleum jelly to keep the wound free of flies. Animal Transport To facilitate this animals can be tranquilized to calm them and to reduce their stress levels and to prevent accidental death from trauma. [I] Animal Handling and Restraint Earlier, under the section on “Practical Management of the Peccary” it was highlighted how dangerous this animal could become due to the size of its canines. In Part 3 of this booklet [the Scientific Literature Review] this was again highlighted as well as methods of restraint. One type of restraint equipment can be the transport box shown in Figure 36. It could have the same dimensions as the Corral and Crush photos of which are presented in Part 5. Several transport boxes [made of light wood, steel rods or aluminium as shown in Figure 36] could be joined together to make portable corridors and corrals. Figure 36: Transportation crates used to transport the peccaries at Monsieur Neyrat in French Guiana Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [130] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 37: Wooden Restraining Cage or Crush for the Figure 38: Wooden Restraining Cage or Crush for collard peccary [Entrance View] the collard peccary [Side view] Figure 39: Wooden Restraining Cage or Crush for the Figure 40: Wooden Restraining Cage or Crush for collard peccary [Side View with Cage on a Poatform the collared peccary [Closeup Side View] Scale] Figures 37 to 40 show the different aspects of a wooden peccary crush. Different aspects of a similar metal peccary crush are shown in Part 5 of this book. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [131] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 41: Plastic ear applied to the right side of a Figure 42: Injecting a female peccary with a female peccary tranquilizer in the restraining crate Figure 43: Tranquilized females recovering in a Figure 44: Tranquilized females recovering in a feeding pen feeding pen Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [132] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 45: Feeding pen opening into the corral Figure 46: Tranquilized female recovering in a and holding area feeding pen Figure 47: View from the holding pen leading to the corral and into the Feeding pen Figure 48: Side view of the corral from the Feeding pen into the holding area Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [133] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 49: Plastic Ear tag Applicator and Plastic Ear tag Figure 50: Plastic Ear tag Applicator and Plastic Ear tag Plastic ear tags are applied on the right ear of females (Figures 41, 43, and 46) and on the left ear of males. This facilitates recognition of the sexes at a distance. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [134] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Part 5 Visits to Peccary Farms in Brazil and Peru Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [135] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Now let us take a pictorial journey to Ilhéus and Ireĉe, Bahia, Brazil and we shall pay a visit to two (2) Peccary Farms. Then we shall travel to Iquitos, Peru and visit a farm that has both Peccaries [Sajinos] and Capybaras [Ronsocos]. In Brazil, the first one belongs to the Universidad Estadual do Santa Cruz, and the second belongs to a private farmer named Mr. Neto. In Peru, the farm is associated with a research station of the Instituto Veterinario de Investigaciones Tropicales y de Altura, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Iquitos, Peru. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [136] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] VISIT TO UESC WILDLIFE FARM: Figure 51: UESC Experimental Farm Figure 52: Visitors to UESC Farm Figure 53: Net for Peccary Restraint Figure 54: Restraining a Peccary with a Net Figure 55: A Restrained Peccary Figure 56: Handling of a restrained Peccary Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [137] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 1. LOCATION AND CLIMATE: Humid Coastal Brazil, principally in the Cacao growing region of Bahia, Brazil. 2. ANIMALS PRESENT: Collared Peccaries  in three (3) Semi-intensive enclosures and  in ten (10) concrete pens [with zinc roofing] which were originally designed for pigs. White Lipped Peccaries  in one (1) Semi-intensive enclosure 3. ANIMAL: LAND RATIO: At present they are conducting animal density studies, but the experience of the Brazilian team suggests that a suitable stocking density would be 100 sq meters / animal. 4. LAYOUT OF THE PECCARY ENCLOSURES / PECCARY HOUSING: Physical Description (Elements) of the Enclosures I. Floors: • either earth pens planted with grass or • concrete floor pens II. Fencing: Height - 1 meter high/ Chain linked and wire fences. Materials - The chain linked fence is embedded in about 15 cms of concrete in the ground. In the pens brick walls are used to form the barriers. III. Shade: Use of Coconut trees in the White Lipped peccary enclosure, or covered sheds in the collared peccary enclosure. IV. Pond: No ponds in either of the enclosures. V. Drinking Water Supply: Potable Water supply. VI. Methods of Animal Restraint:  Use of Nets [Figures 53-56]  Use of a Restraining Crush [Figures 57-62]. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [138] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 5. HOW DO THEY GET ANIMALS FROM DIFFERENT GROUPS TO MIX? Peccaries are highly social animals and they do not allow strange animals to enter the group, or when an animal leaves the group acceptance for re-entry into the group is very difficult, if not impossible. To form a new breeding group with animals from different groups the following could be done:  one group [2 or 3 animals] of compatible males from the same group must be put into an empty enclosure and left there for about two weeks;  then a group of compatible females could be introduced with caution. 6. FEEDS AND FEEDING: i. Mineral Mix ii. Injectable Vitamin A and E iii. Animals fed whatever agricultural waste is available along with the grass that is available within the enclosures. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [139] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 57: Restraining Crush Figure 58: Crush Use Figure 59: Crush All the Way in Figure 60: Crush Side View Figure 61: Crush Handle Figure 62: Crush Overview Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [140] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] VISIT TO PECCARY FARM: JOAO (NETO) BATISTA BARRETO (JBB) 1. ADDRESS: Rua Prof. Joel Lopes No 443 IRECE, BAHIA, BRAZIL Ph: 074 – 641 – 1397  Figure 63: Vote of thanks for the Visit Miss Gail YOUNG: Technicienne Faune Sauvage [Chambre de l’Agriculture de la Guyane and Livestock Technician, OTF-APL, DFP, UWI] Dr. Sérgio NOGUEIRA: Professor Animão Silvestre, UESC, Bahia, Brazil Senor Joao [Neto] BATISTA BARRETO: Peccary Pioneer and Innovative Farmer, th Irêce, Bahia, Brazil, July 24 2003. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [141] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 2. LOCATION AND CLIMATE: Dry inland Brazil, Oxisols (red earths) principally Xerophytic type plants in the environment, semi-arid [less than 100 cms of rainfall per annum] region of Bahia [Figure 64 gives a pictorial idea of the farm visited].  Figure 64: Peccaries feeding along the grain trail on the red earth soil. 3. APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF ANIMALS: 450 peccaries of all Physiological States. 4. TOTAL FARM SIZE: Approximately 40 hectares 5. FARM ACTIVITIES: Maize and Bean Cultivation [Main Enterprise] with a few cattle and little a citrus. 6. TOTAL AREA UNDER PECCARIES: 5 Hectares 7. ANIMAL: LAND RATIO: 90 Animals per Hectare [approximately 100 square meters/ animal] 8. SYSTEM OF PRODUCTION: Semi-intensive 9. LAYOUT OF PECCARY ENCLOSURES / PECCARY HOUSING: (See Plan, Figure 65) Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [142] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Code Meaning Fig # C Chute 83 & 84 CT Corn Trail 64, 73, 101, 102 CF Creep Feed 76, 77, 78 EF Electric Fence 66, 67 [EF] EFP EF Pulsator 67 FY Feeding Yard 101 to 106 FT Feed Trough GG Guillotine 81, 82, Gate 85 GS Grain Storage 73 MC Main Corral 82 RE Restraining 84, 86 Equipment to 90 RC Restraining Corral S Sleeping Area 99 SC Small Corral 91 to 96 and Wooden Chute  Figure 65: Rough Plan of Mr. Barreto’s Peccary Farm, Icere, Bahia, W1 Water Tank 1 71 Brazil, July 2003. W2 Water Trough 72 T Toilet 100 WP Water Pond 70 MG Main Gate 79 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [143] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Physical Description (Elements) of the Enclosures Floorsing: All the enclosures had earth floors. [Figures 66 & 67] Fencing:  Height: 1 to 1.5 metres  Materials: Wooden Poles, Bamboo and Living Stakes  Electric Fencing: Used on the inside of the fence, about a 0.5 m away and 0.3 x 0.6m high from the ground. [Figures 66 & 67] Figure 66: Wooden fence with electric Figure 67: Fencing arrangements showing the red plastic box fencing on the inside. protecting the electric fencing impulse generator. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [144] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Shade:  Trees & Shrubsm were used in the enclosures to provide shade and privacy.  Protection of Trees: The trees need to be protected from animal damage to the bark 1 – 1.5 m from the ground. Barrels, galvanize or plastics.were used to surround the trees [Figure 68 and 69] Figure 68: Base of a tree being protected by a metal barrel. Figure 69: Shrubs not eaten by the peccaries being used as shading in one of the enclosures. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [145] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Pond:  A pond measuring 15m x 10m x 0.5m deep is present in the main enclosure where the animals are fed and where they sleep. [Figure 53]  Figure 70: Peccaries adjacent to the pond Drinking Water Supply:  Water is available through a pond, tank and trough and a modified float and trough. [Figures 70, 71 & 72] Figure 71: Older brick water tank and Figure 72: Concerte trough 10cms wide and drinking trough that is about 15 cms wide, somewhat high to prevent the young from the young sometimes fall into this trough. falling in, the float valve is protected in the background.  Tank & Trough [see Figure 71]:  Modified Trough: The trough is about 10 – 15 cm wide and high enough so that the little ones do not get pushed into the water [Figure 72]. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [146] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Feed Storage:  Dried Grains [ground maize grain and cob] kept in covered barrels [Figure #73] Figure 73: Grain stored in barrels within the feeding area.  Cactus in Trailers. [Figure 74] Figure 74: Cactus [rachette] in trailers. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [147] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005]  Melons kept in Trailers. [Figure 75] Figure 75: Melons in trailers. Creep Feeding:  A creep feeding enclosure is used to feed grain. The vertical slats or barriers are 10 cm apart [Figures 76, 77 & 78]. The function here is the same as for piglets. Figure 76: The spacing between the verticals Figure 77: Side view of the creep feeding in the creep feeding area is about 12 cm area. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [148] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 78: Front view of the Creep feeding area Gates:  Main Gate_ There is a long hinged gate 5 – 6m wide [Figure 79] serving as the enclosure's entrance. Figure 79: Hinged main gate. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [149] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005]  Between the smaller enclosures there is the use of guillotine gates (1m heigh x 0.7 m wide) [Figures 80 & 81]  Figure 80: Guillotine gate with a vertical Figure 81: Guillotine gate with a rope and pulley lever Corral and Restraining Area: There is a central corral/holding yard [Figure 82] that appears on both sides of two enclosures and terminates on one end in the main feeding yard/ nighttime enclosure and tapers towards the other end at the chute [Figure 85] and crush [Figure 84 and 86 to 90]. Figure 82: Main Corral Figure 83: Chute Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [150] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005]  Figure 85: Use of Bamboo in Corral Construction Figure 84: End of Chute, Crush and Transport box. and manual guillotine gate. Restraining Crush and Transport box: This is seen in Figure 84, 88 and 97. Restraining Crush: Figures 86 to 90 shows the metal crush from different aspects.  Figure 86: Top view of crush. Figure 87: Side view of Crush Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [151] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 89: Restraining an animal in the crush  Figure 88: Front view of crush Figure 90: Applying an ear tag to an animal restrained within the crush.  There is also a small wooden handling pen, chute and crush within a small holding pen [Figures 91 to 96], this also serves for closer animal management and observations. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [152] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 91: Guillotine gate entrance Figure 92: Swing gate at side of the wooden chute Figure 93: Top view of the chute Figure 94: Guillotine gate at side of the chute Figure 95: Wooden Crush area Figure 96: Wooden Crush The chute functions in such a way that several animals can be held within itat any one time. Through a series of laterally sliding gates the animals are advanced one at a time, Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [153] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Transport Box: When the animals need to be transported, after passing through the chute they come up to the transport box which is placed at the end of the restraining cruch. The wooden box is kept adjacent to the crush [Figures 97 and 98]. Figure 97: Details of Wooden transport Box Figure 98: Details of the Sliding door of the wooden transport box. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [154] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Sleeping Area:  This occours generally to one part of the yard [Figure 99]. Figure 99: Area showing toilet adjacent to the Figure 100: Toilet area sleeping area Peccary Toilet: The animals only defecate in a restricted area within the enclosure where they spend the night [Figure 100]. Adjacent to this area they generally tend to sleep. ANIMAL ROUTINES: In the morning the animals are let out into the shaded holding yard, where they can forage during the day. In the evening the gates are raised and they are led into the feeding yard and nightime area. FEEDS AND FEEDING: Feeding Materials: Philosophy-Feed what is available. Materials used-Whole Grain, Ground Corn Cob, Cactus (Rachette), Desert Melon (Farm grown); Mineral Mix (only purchased feed) Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [155] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Feeding Routine: Animals are fed in the evenings when the daytime heat is less. The grains spread in trails all through the feeding yard to avoid competiton for feed. Animals are also given cactus (Rachette-) and melons [Figures 101 to106]. Figure 101: Spreading the grain in trails Figure 102: Animals feeding along the trails Figure 104: Animals eating the melons and Figure 103: Animals following the farmer at the feeding distributed grains. trails. Figure 105: Animals entering the feeding yard Figure 106: Animals feeding freely without any signs of true aggression Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [156] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Quantity of Feed Used:  This farmer uses about 100 kg of maize grain/ grain & ground cob /day to feed his animals. Observations Made: The farmer was very innovative in his use of materials and feed. He has applied principles of housing for cattle [the corral system] and pig [the creep feed system] production towards peccary production and management. Creep Feeding: This seems to be a recent innovation and its impact should be evaluated. Use of ADE Injectable: Wise use to ensure that vitamin A deficiency is not experienced due to a lack of green forage during the extended period of dry weather. MARKETING: Animals are sold as breeding stock, so no slaughtering is done. ANIMAL LONGEVITY: The oldest female on the farm is 25 years, but she has been kept in isolation for the last year or so and has not been used for reproduction for a few years [Figure 107]. Figure 107: A 25 year old Peccary Female [Peccasow] Note: It is safe to suggest that a Peccary Female (Peccasow) could be kept reproductive for about ten (10) to fifteen (15) years. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [157] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] ANIMAL IDENTIFICATION: Plastic ear tags are used.. PERSONNEL: It is important to note that only one person, MR. JOAO “NETO” BATISTA BARRETO”, feeds and handles these animals. It is only during the time for manipulating the animals for transport that he requires other assistance. FARMER’S DATA: Sex: Male Age: 55 years? rd Years in Farming: All of his life, 3 Generation Farmer. Experience: Cattle Management and grain and legume Cultivation. Years rearing Peccary: 25 years Years spent developing the Semi-commercial Model: = 15 – 18 years. DISSCUSSION HELD WITH FARMER. Marketing:  He sells his animals live to persons who want to breed them (with a JBB ear tag)  No authorized slaughter facilities are available so he is unable to sell the meat.  The main market for peccary meat is São-Paulo, and it is very far away. Breeding: Year-round continuous breeding is carried out. Figure 108: Over 50 peccaries feeding in the main feeding area and overnight pen Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [158] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] VISIT TO A PECCARY AND CAPYBARA RESEARCH FARM: ZOOCRIADO BIOAM La Empreza Biodiversidad Amazonica SRL-BIOAM Km 23 Carretara Iquitos-Nauta, Iquitos, Departamento de Loreto, Amazonia, Peru. WELCOME! Figure 109: Welcome Discussions Dr. Feran JORI, Prof. Sergio NOGUEIRA, Dr. Hugo GÁLVEZ: and Ing. Forestal Carlos CORNEJO ARANA BACKGROUND: This visit will be a very interesting one for you the readers as it would highlight three very important concepts:  Intensive Neo-tropical Animal Wildlife Species Production  Integrated Neo-tropical Animal Wildlife Species Production [Collared Peccaries, Capybaras, Chickens and River Conchs] and Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [159] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005]  The design of a facility for minimal disturbance of the forest and to suit the topography of the area [Environmentally Friendly Livestock Production Systems]. Figure 110: Entrance to ZOOCRIADERO BIOAM This entrance shows that the “Zoocriadero” [Wildlife Farm] is located in an area that is typical of the Neo-tropical forest [Figure 110]. The other entrance to the farm from the main road, also has the same type of flora [Figure 111]. “Zoocriaderos” is the name given to those animal rearing facilities that has sustainable production of native fauna reared intensively in captivity (Ojasti 2002). This production facility is located in a small valley with a small stream running through the middle and a ridge on both sides. The small stream runs through the area that contains the livestock facilities. This stream provides:  the water for the animals drinking  the water to fill the ponds for the animal well being [as in the case of the Capybara] and  a slow continuous movement of the water provides the necessary aeration for the aquatic species [see Figure 117]. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [160] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] HISTORY AND FORM OF OWNERSHIP: This project began in 1996 with capybaras and in 1999 peccaries were introduced. The Project is privately owned and the objective here is to develop production systems for these and other native species, with scientific inputs from the local and international scientific community. The product output objectives are leather and prepared meats for sale to the local and international market. Below is a short description of the area. Figure 111: Entrance to the Farm LOCATION AND CLIMATE: Humid Tropical Amazonian Tropics, on the border of Peru, Colombia and Brazil in South America o Average annual range of temperature: 22 to 32 C. o Daily range of temperature: 4 C. Relative Humidity: 85% Annual rainfall: 2600 mm to 3000 mm APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF ANIMALS FARMED: 23 adult peccaries that were wild caught. Capybaras of all Physiological States Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [161] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] FARM SIZE: Approximately 300 hectares in natural forests; 2500 square metres devoted to the intensive production of capybaras; 1500 square metres devoted to the intensive production of peccaries. FARM ACTIVITIES: Peccary Production Capybara Production Fresh water Conch [Pomacea urceus] Production Wild Poultry Production Eco-tourism Model Development ANIMAL HOUSING and ANIMAL: LAND RATIO: The animals are housed as shown in the following figures. The Capybara enclosures are 10 metres x 9 metres. The Peccary enclosures are 25 metres x 9 metres. Animal are kept in breeding groups of 3 to 4 animals with a Male: Female of 1: 2 -3. 2 Peccary animal density was about 56 m / animal. Physical Descriptive (Elements) of the Enclosures Floors: All enclosures were earth floors. [All Figures] Fencing:  Height: 1.5 to 2 metres  Materials: Wooden Poles, Cut wood and Living trees Shade:  Trees and shrubs are used in the enclosures to provide shade and privacy.  Thatched Roofs over wooden Platforms [All figures ] Ponds:  There is a pond in each of the Capybara enclosures about 3 m x 5 m located at the lowest point of the pen [Figure 113, 115, 116, 117, 131], this provides the drinking water as well Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [162] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Drinking Water Supply:  Water is available from the adjacent ponds of the Capybara pens. This water flows continuously from a small stream which flows through all pens [Figures 113, 115, 116, 117, 131] FEEDS AND FEEDING: Feeding Materials: The animals received a basal diet of what ever seasonal forest products were available. In addition they also received 200 g / animal / day of a concentrate supplement made up of maize grain and rice polishings, which is what is used regionally for the commercial feeding of poultry. Water was available free of choice. BREEDING: Animals are allowed to breed year round. Figure 112: Entrance to the higher end of the valley where the pens are located Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [163] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 113: View of the pens from one side of the valley Figure 114: View of the pens down in the valley Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [164] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 115: Close up view of two capybara breeding pens with the pond and aquatic plants in the middle of both pens Figure 116: View of the pens down the middle of the valley showing the ponds in the middle Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [165] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 117: View from the lower end of the valley showing the water flowing down through a pipe in the middle of the foreground and flowing into a larger pen with the growing aquatic plants. Figure 118: View of a peccary pen highlighting minimal removal of trees to maintain cover Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [166] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 119: View of a peccary pen at the extremity of the clearing highlighting minimal removal of trees to maintain the forest microclimate Figure 120: View downwards into the valley from the pen shown in Figure 119 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [167] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 121: View into the pens from the side noting extensive use of forest raw materials for pen construction Figure 122: A platform on the ridged side of a peccary pen Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [168] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 123: Looking down into the Peccary pen Figure 124: Fresh water conch [Pomacea urceus] being grown in an artificially constructed pond/ dam Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [169] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 125: View of the conch growing chambers made of wire mesh in the artificial pond or dam Figure 126: Side view of the pond or dam head made from an earth embankment and a row of concrete blocks. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [170] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 127: An individual grown crate for the river conch Figure 128: Organic Chicken Production Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [171] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 129: Eating facilities of the Eco-tourism Facility with Wooden logs for the stools and five cms thick wooden discs for plates Figure 130: Earth Oven at the Eco-tourism Facility Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [172] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 131: Capybara Growing pen Figure 132: Adjacent Capybara Pens Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [173] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 133: Small peccary breeding pen containing covered feed troughs and isolation area Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [174] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Part 6 Peccary Utilization [The Conversion of Peccary to Meat & Peccary Cuisine] Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [175] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 6.1 NEO-TROPICAL WILDLIFE CUISINE Neo-tropical Wildlife Cuisine: an Illusion or a Reality? Neo-tropical animal wildlife cuisine has existed since humans and wildlife co-existed in this area of the world that we now refer to as the Neo-tropics. Thus, Neo-tropical animal wildlife cuisine is nothing new. It has, however, been seen for too long as the food (not meals or cuisine) of uncultured persons. It has also been felt that these dishes did not qualify to be called “Cuisine” [the art and science of cooking] in the same sense as that used to describe European and American dishes. In this present work we would like to introduce the term “Ethnocuisineology”. This refers to all the activities surrounding cooking and gastronomy within a social, socio- economic and cultural context. The term “Gastronomy” is the art of good eating (Robuchon, 2001), the preparation and enjoyment of food and all things that peoples eat and admit into their gastro-intestinal system (Greek: “Gastros” meaning stomach). The term “Ethno” also has its origin in the Greek language… “Ethos” meaning “nation” and in English today Ethno means Ethnic. “Ethnocuisineology” is therefore a dynamic set of activities that has been evolved by groups and cultures initially out of their primeval survival needs. This was hen further developed into daily social activities and ceremonial and festive events. The term has its roots in culture and gastronomy and therefore its manifestations would change with time as the eating customs change and become accepted by all. “Ethnocuisineology” could also be seen as the ways through which people within a specific cultural framework come together to enjoy food accompanied by the surrounding events linked to the preparation and eating of the food. Figure 134 presents a schematic representation of the Ethnocuisineology concept. Food is at the centre, but the process begins with it’s preparation, then merges into the social and cultural events and culminating with the enjoyment of the food. In the introduction to the book “Poultry and Game”, Mc Andrew (1993) suggested that hunting wild game was a form of wildlife conservation. He also indicated “……… Game and poultry always were, from the beginning of time, before battery and intensive farming, an important part of man’s diet”. Also in that book, (which seem to have been written through the eyes of an accomplished “Eurocentric Chef”), he excellently described the post slaughter, preparation and cooking of poultry and wild game (hare, rabbit, deer, and wild boar). Unfortunately no such book exists on the cuisine of our neo-tropical wild animal species, although some recipes do exist for some of our Neo-tropical wildlife species. Some of these recipes could be found in Adami (2002), Bergeon-Marty and Alibert (2002), and Parkinson (1999), but there is no comprehensive approach to developing recipes for the meats and cuts of meat derived from our Neo-tropical animals. Compounding the situation is the fact that some of our local chefs (who are European or North American trained) have been forced into attempting to have the meats of our Neo- Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [176] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] tropical animals cooked in the European and North American tradition. This is not possible. What our chefs should attempt to do is to develop recipes for our Neo-tropical meats that would follow two paths that would celebrate: 1. strong wildlife flavors [conserver le gout sauvage], and 2. mild or modified flavors [creer le gout comme les viandes domestique], [personal communication from Madame Remylienne SAIBOU, Kourou, La Guyanne Francaise, August 2004, see Figure 135]. The Progression E N Social & J Cultural O Events Y Preparation M Socio Economic E N Cultural T Food Time or Event Nutrient Flavors Liquids Related O Loaded F Occasion Related Non Nutritive or Lingual Pleasure F O O D Through the events and the customs which continue to evolve Figure 134: A Schematic Representation of the Ethnocuisineology Concept [Source: Gary Wayne Garcia, 2004, unpublished] Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [177] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] To ensure this we need to follow the direction of developing a “complete Neo-tropical cuisine”. This would involve Neo-tropical root crops, fruits and vegetables with specific dishes suited to particular wildlife cuts of meats. Thus the dishes would have two components: 1. Neo-tropical food products and 2. Neo-tropical wild animal meat cuts. This different approach would then form the basis of “Neo-tropical Animal Wildlife Cuisine”, and would further contribute to the evolution of “Neo-tropical Animal Ethnocuisineology” Figure 135: Madame Remylienne SAIBOU, Kourou, La Guyanne Francaise Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [178] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 6.2 THE DEMAND FOR THE MEAT OF THE PECCARY AND OTHER NEO-TROPICAL WILDLIFE [La Viande Gibier/ Carne de Monte/ Wild- meat] 6.2.1 Information from a remote area in Brazil Peres (2000) presented data on wildlife harvesting from Brazil Amazonia over a ten (10) year 2 period from 1987 to 1996. Figure 136 shows the study zone covering an area of 5,065,384 km 2 with a rural population density of 1.61 individuals/km . He reported that the mean body mass of the animals harvested was 2.26 kg with a range of 0.82 to 3.98 kg. He divided the species into four groups based on body size as follows: 1. Small species < 1 kg; 2. Medium sized species, 1-5kg; 3. Large species, 5 – 15 kg and 4. Very Large species >15kg. The latter group includes the Collared Peccary [Tayassu tajacu or Pecari tajacu], the White- Lipped Peccary [Tayassu pecari, Pecari pecari ], the Red Brocket Deer [Mazama americana], the Grey Brocket Deer [M. gouazoubira] and the Lowaland Tapir [Tapirus terrestris]. The total number of animals and biomass harvested are presented in Table 16. Table 15: Estimates of Peccary Consumption per year by Low-Income & Rural Populations of the Brazilian Amazon Animals Consumed Biomass Harvested % of % of SPECIES [numbers] [tonnes] Mammals Total Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum White Lipped Peccary 511,527 1,499,318 15,655.1 38,382.5 25.9 23.3 [Tayassu pecari, or Pecari pecari] Collared Peccary [T. tajacu or 551,949 1,353,248 11,039.0 17,065.0 18.3 16.4 Pecari tajacu] Total Mammals 6,444,266 15,789.999 60,425.7 148,149.7 Total All Vertebrates 9,581,487 23,491,529 67,173.0 164,692.0 Source: Adapted from Peres (2000) If we are extracting around one million collared peccaries per year from the Brazilian Amazon alone, then there is room for genetic selection within the Collared Peccary to improve this Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [179] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] animal’s performance in captivity. The extraction rate of the collared peccaries in this area is 2 calculated to range from 0.1 to 0.26 animals / km / annum. In Trinidad and Tobago as in Brazil significant harvesting of wildlife occurs with similar consequences. In the following section, a synopsis of the situation regarding wildlife harvesting, commercialization and utilization is provided. Figure 136: Location of Amazonian Rain Forest Sites censured by Peres (2000) 6.2.2 Information on the Wildlife Industry in Trinidad and Tobago [A Small Twin Island Caribbean State] Trinidad is the larger of the twin island state of The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. The island is located 10.50N latitude and 61.50W longitude and consists of 4,828 km2. Tobago, just northeast of Trinidad, is 300 km2. The average rainfall for the period May 1996 to May 1998 was 1,909mm. Maximum and minimum temperatures for this period were 32.30C and 22.90C respectively. The climate is described as a “Wet and Dry Tropical” climate with five (5) to six (6) months of dry weather (January to May or June) and five (5) to six (6) months of wet weather (May or June to December). The Central Ridge in Tobago is the oldest Forest Reserves in the Western Hemisphere [it was designated a forest reserve in 1765]. These forests are divided into legally constituted Forest Reserves and other forest or State Lands. On the island of Trinidad there are 161,524 hectares of forest reserves that are accessible to licensed hunters [Table 17]. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [180] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Table 16: Area of forests in Trinidad and Tobago CATEGORY TRINIDAD TOBAGO TOTAL % OF (ha) (ha) (ha) TOTAL AREA Forest Reserves 99,435 3,958 103,393 20.1% Forest on State Lands 62,089 3,366 65,455 12.7% Total 161,524 7,324 168,848 32.8% Source: Wildlife Section, Forestry Division of the Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources) This small twin island state consists of a population of 1,282,600 people of which 558,700 are employed. Trinidad and Tobago has an oil-based economy with a Gross Domestic Product in 1998 of 36,493.5 million TT$ (6.3TT$ = 1US$, 1998-2000). Oil and Asphalt including Mining and Refining generated TT$ 7,799.4 million while Agriculture contributed 744.6 million TT$ in 1998. Two (2) main ethnic groups, African descendants and East Indian descendants, make up 39.6% and 40.3% of the population respectively. The four (4) dominant religions are Roman Catholics, Hindus, Anglicans and Muslims with percentages of 29.4%, 23.8%, 10.9% and 5.5% respectively (CSO, 1999). Whereas certain religions prohibit the eating of particular meats [for example Islam forbids the consumption of pork or pork products], there is likely no religion which strongly objects to the eating of any “wildmeat” (the meat of Neo-tropical wildlife species). A survey conducted by Mohammed (1999 unpublished) has supported this statement. The local wildlife includes game animals listed in Table 18. It should be pointed out that the Collared Peccary or the Quenk (which is commonly called wild hog) is not a pig (Suis sp) species. So Muslims can theoretically eat the meat of this animal as long as the animal was “hallalled”. The fauna of Trinidad and Tobago is typical of that of the South American Tropics with a range of biological diversity that no other island within the Caribbean can match. Species such as the red squirrel, the green parrot and various sound birds are kept as pets. However the squirrel and the green parrot can also be considered a pest as both species attack local cocoa (Theobroma cacao) fields and damage the cocoa pods (Molineau et al 2003). The Cocrico (Ortalis ruficauda) (one of the two national birds) is also considered a pest in Tobago as it attacks fruit trees and orchards on the island. Brown, Garcia, Manick, Poujade (1994) and Brown et al (2000) presented a case study of Wildlife Farming in Trinidad based on 1990 information. They concluded that wild meat is sold at a higher price per kilogram than the meat of domesticated animals, such as poultry, pork, chevron, beef and mutton. In addition, they suggested that once wildlife farmers can produce a steady supply of wild meat there could be some economic potential. They noted that there was little information on local game animals. In that study they reported that there were only 15-20 registered and accessible wildlife farmers. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [181] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] By 2004 this number rose to 250 registered and 79 active wildlife farmers in Trinidad. They were registered with the Wildlife Section in the Forestry Division, Ministry of Public Utilities and The Environment. The present situation suggests that wildlife farming is growing in Trinidad, and with governmental support rural communities can attain some socio-economic benefits from this activity. The constraints to the expansion of wildlife farming, however, as perceived by them are outlined below: 1. Breeding Stock: this is seen as the major constraint to production as breeding stock is in great demand; 2. Technical Information and Production Models for the species in Trinidad and Tobago: this information is generally absent or unavailable, so far the only reliable information of this type has been recently published on the Agouti by Brown- Uddenberg et al (2004); and 3. Some positive support and direction from the state: the farmers surveyed see this as a badly needed pre-condition for success, [Rooplal, 2004]. Table 17: Major Local Game Species hunted in Trinidad and Tobago ORDER LOCAL NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME Mammalia Agouti Dasyprocta leporina Manicou (black-eared oppossum) Didelphis marsupialis insularis Neo-tropical Red Squirrel Sciuriur granatensis Lappe or Spotted Paca Agouti paca Red Brocket Deer Manzama americana Tattoo or Nine Banded Armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus insularis Wildhog/ quenk Tayassu tajuca, Pecari tajacu Birds Cocrico Ortalis ruficauda Green Parrot Amazona amzaonica Songbird species Very many species Reptilia Alligator or Spectacled Caiman Caiman sclerops Iguana Iguana iguana Morocoy Geochelene spp. All of this points to the immediate need for a model to be developed to serve as a basis for organizing or reorganizing the present industry. 6.2.2.1 The Methodology Used In Developing The Model Of The Wildlife Industry In Trinidad and Tobago The model for the Wildlife Industry in Trinidad and Tobago was developed based on information obtained from the Wildlife Section, Forestry Division formerly of the Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, now of the Ministry of Public Utilities and the Environment, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. This information included the number of hunting permits sold by the Wildlife Section during the period 1990 to 2003. Also used were data on the harvest of wildlife from the forest by the registered hunters. This consisted of the number of wildlife farmers, their personal Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [182] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] information, the various wildlife animals reared and their numbers. This was then used to calculate the supply potential of both the licensed hunters and wildlife farmers. A diagrammatic representation of the Wildlife Industry was then developed by Mollineau et al (2000) using these findings and other contributing components from the sectors which make up the Wildlife Industry. The components of a Livestock Industry have been classified as (1) Input Suppliers, (2) Processors, (3) Control Systems, (4) Research and Development and (5) Markets as suggested by Garcia, Young, John and Bridgewater (1999). 6.2.2.2 The Industry Findings The wildlife industry in Trinidad (Figure 137) is small relative to other livestock industries within the country. It consists of a small niche market where the consumers comprise mainly the wild meat lovers and pet shops which purchase and sell wildlife as pets. Hunters and wildlife farmers are the main producers/supplies of wild meat to the market. Hunters also trap sound birds, parrots, monkeys and squirrels for the pet trade. The most consumed and intensively-reared wild meat appears to be the Agouti (Dasyprocta leporina). A breakdown of the hunting permits sold between 1989 and 2004, as well as the number of hunters are presented in tables 19 and 20. The hunting season runs from October 1st of one year to February 28th of the following year [five months]. A hunting permit costs TT$20.00 and it allows a person to hunt a specified species for the particular hunting season. This restriction was introduced in an attempt to protect, conserve and hopefully assist in increasing the wildlife population, that has been over hunted in recent years. However, the natural wildlife is under threat from poachers and bush fires during the dry season (that generally runs from December to May), and agriculture and development which compete for their habitats. Poachers use homemade guns, trap guns and other forms of cruel harvesting methods, which also endanger the lives of other persons who would like to use the forest resources. The poachers operate outside of the law and during the closed hunting season (March 1st to September 30th). Their catch may sell for double the amount demanded by the registered hunters. Each year bush fires damage the habitat of wildlife species placing added stress on their population survival chances. In addition forest are also deliberately burned by farmers to clear more agricultural lands for their crops (Mollineau et al 2000). Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [183] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] CONTROL PRODUCERS Wildlife Farmers 79 Active SY STEMS [250 Registered] OTF-APL 1 experimental unit INPUT SUPPLIERS Wildlife Section, EVZ 1 unit Forestry Division of the Hardware Stores- FD 1 unit Ministry of Agriculture, building materials, and La nd and Marine other supplies. Resources – closes hu nting season, issues hunting licences, habitat HUNTERS Fruit Market- fruits for control, forest fire Approximately wildlife feed. con trol, monitor species 5,000 to 9,667 population. registered Pet Shops-some wild species and feed. Commissioner of Police – issues gun PROCESSORS Wildlife Farmers- breeding stock licences Wildlife Farmers – Hunters (trappers)- slaughter, skin, breeding stock. clean Gun Shops – hunting  rifles, ammunition, etc. RE SEARCH Hunters- slaughter, DEVELOPMENT skin, clean Hardware Stores- TRAINING processing equipment (hunting accessories), OT FAPL – Intensive scales for weighing Wildlife Production wildmeat. Mo dels MARKETS EVZ – Small niche market Agouti production Animal carcasses are sold as fresh meat or frozen. Wildlife Section Small animals are sold whole (e.g. Min. of Agric agouti) larger species are halved or quartered (e.g. deer) ASA Wright Customers are mainly wildmeat Nature Centre lovers willing to pay high prices Wild Fowl Trust Figure 137: Diagram of the Wildlife Industry in Trinidad and Dept. of Life Tobago; EVZ – Emperor Valley Zoo; OTFAPL – Open Tropical Sciences UWI Forage Animal Production Laboratory; FD – Forestry Division of the Ministry of Agriculture Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [184] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] The revenue collected by the Wildlife Section for hunting permits during the period 1989-90 to 2003-04 ranged from $23,560 to $276,500 ($TT) (Table 19). The total number of permits sold from 1989 to 2004 ranged from 1178 to 13,825, and the total number of hunters paying for permits ranged from 1142 to 9667 (Table 19 and 20). The total number of permits sold by species are detailed in Table 20. Upon purchasing the permits the hunters must return Mandatory Data Forms which would report their catch for the season. Failure to do so will result in disqualification for a permit the following season. Table 18: Wildlife Section, Forestry Division State Game Licences Programme Total Permits Sold, Revenue Collected & Total Number of Hunters During The Period 1989- 2003 REVENUE TOTAL TOTAL SEASON COLLECTED PERMITS HUNTERS (TT$) 1989/1990 1178 23,560 1990/1991 1428 28,560 1142 1991/1992 4737 94,740 3790 1992/1993 6970 139,400 5677 1993/1994 7467 149,240 6398 1994/1995 7455 149,100 6040 1995/1996 6943 138,860 5561 1996/1997 7265 145,300 5412 1997/1998 7342 146,840 5568 1998/1999 9253 185,060 5748 1999/2000 9379 187,580 7094 2000/2001 9765 195,300 6342 2001/2002 11220 224,400 9555 2002/2003 12704 254,080 9667 2003/2004 13825 276,500 8375 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [185] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Table 19: Wildlife Section, Forestry Division State Game Licences Programme Permits Sold by Species during The Period 1989- 2003 SPECIES SOLD TOTAL REVENUE TOTAL SEASON CAGE- ALLIG. / TATTOO/ WATER PERMITS COLLECTED HUNTERS AGOUTI DEER LAPPE QUENK BIRDS LIZARD ARMAD. -FOWL 1989/1990 1178 23560 1990/1991 3037 222 1214 986 111 309 1287 262 1428 28560 1142 1991/1992 1901 38 904 619 66 260 789 160 4737 94740 3790 1992/1993 3157 135 1190 850 65 239 1125 206 6970 139400 5677 1993/1994 3275 138 1262 903 91 302 1224 272 7467 149240 6398 1994/1995 3358 142 1238 916 92 301 1145 263 7455 149100 6040 1995/1996 3025 95 1173 887 128 269 1086 280 6943 138860 5561 1996/1997 3145 93 1269 944 193 334 968 319 7265 145300 5412 1997/1998 3083 116 1218 914 211 301 1053 446 7342 146840 5568 1998/1999 3300 106 1347 1098 295 358 1138 1611 9253 185060 5748 1999/2000 3818 125 1562 1226 397 411 1355 485 9379 187580 7094 2000/2001 3939 146 1584 1282 441 453 1404 516 9765 195300 6342 2001/2002 4511 182 1726 1468 612 496 1657 568 11220 224400 9555 2002/2003 4906 199 2038 1629 767 628 1836 701 12704 254080 9667 2003/2004 5197 228 2186 1790 904 671 2097 752 13825 276500 8375 These hunters trap and shoot the species such as the agouti (Dasyprocta leporina), the lappe (Agouti paca), the Red Brocket deer (Manzama americana), the iguana (Iguana iguana), the nine banded armadillo/tattoo (Dasypus novemcinctus), the collared peccary/wildhog/quenk (Tayassu tajacu), the manicou/black-eared oppossum (Didelphis marsupialis insularis ), the cocrico (Ortalis ruficauda), and the spectacled caiman/alligator (Caiman sclerops). The reported Hunter Harvests for the seasons 1990-91 to 1994-95 are presented in Table 21. The estimated value of the wildlife harvested for the respective years are presented in Tables 22 to 26. These values range from TT$4.0 million to TT$5.7 million. These hunters are made up of hobbyist to occupational hunters. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [186] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Table 20: Reported Harvest for Seasons 1990 Through 1995 Species SEASON SEASON SEASON SEASON SEASON Average SD 90-91 91-92 92-93 93-94 94-95 % of % of % of % of % of Forms Forms Forms Forms Forms Returned Returned Returned Returned Returned 45% 75% 78% 73% 85% Agouti 7,540 14,363 11,616 16,741 16,900 13,432 3,932 Cage 99 29 80 75 63 69 26 Birds Deer 850 1,299 967 1,230 1,254 1,120 199 Lappe 699 1,058 987 1,052 1,107 981 163 Lizards 185 378 88 252 479 276 155 Quenk 173 325 183 239 157 215 69 Tattoo 1,337 2,238 1,767 2,620 1,670 1,926 504 Water 1,943 2,419 1,055 2,076 1,494 1,797 531 Fowl Total 12,826 22,109 16,743 24,285 23,124 19,817 4,860 Average 1,603 2,764 2,093 3,036 2,891 SD 2,482 4,768 3,893 5,612 5,693 Table 21: Value [$TT] of harvest for the Period 1990-1991 Species # OF ANIMALS DRESSED DRESSED PRICE TOTAL 45% WT. WT. TT$/ Value TT$ RETURN 100% kg/ kgs. 100% kg Animal Agouti 7540 16756 2.27 38035 $39.60 $1,506,190.40 Cage 99 220 0.00 0 $99.00 $21,780.00 birds Deer 850 1889 15.91 30052 $55.00 $1,652,872.22 Lappe 699 1553 10.45 16232 $50.00 $811,616.67 Lizards 185 411 1.82 748 $44.00 $32,921.78 Quenk 173 384 34.09 13106 $55.00 $720,814.11 Tattoo 1337 2971 3.18 9448 $66.00 $623,576.80 Water 1943 4318 1.36 5872 $30.80 $180,863.08 fowl TOTAL 12,826 28,502 $5,550,635.05 $6TT = $1US Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [187] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Table 22: Value [$TT] of harvest for the Period 1991-1992 Species # OF ANIMALS DRESSED DRESSED PRICE TOTAL 75% WT. WT. Value TT$ RETURN 100% Kg/ kgs. 100% TT$/kg Animal Agouti 14363 19151 2.27 43472 $39.60 $1,721,491.73 Cage 29 39 0.00 0 $99.00 $3,828.00 birds Deer 1299 1732 15.91 27556 $55.00 $1,515,586.60 Lappe 1058 1411 10.45 14741 $50.00 $737,073.33 Lizards 378 504 1.82 917 $44.00 $40,360.32 Quenk 325 433 34.09 14772 $55.00 $812,478.33 Tattoo 2238 2984 3.18 9489 $66.00 $626,281.92 Water 2419 3225 1.36 4386 $30.80 $135,102.76 fowl TOTAL 22,109 29,479 $5,592,203.00 $6TT = $1US Table 23: Value [$TT] of harvest for the Period 1992-1993 Species # OF ANIMAL DRESSED DRESSED PRICE TOTAL 78% WT. WT. TT$/kg Value TT$ RETURN 100% Kg/ kgs. 100% Animal Agouti 11616 14892 2.27 33806 $39.60 $1,338,699.32 Cage 80 103 0.00 0 $99.00 $10,153.85 birds Deer 967 1240 15.91 19724 $55.00 $1,084,837.63 Lappe 987 1265 10.45 13223 $50.00 $661,163.46 Lizards 88 113 1.82 205 $44.00 $9,034.67 Quenk 183 235 34.09 7998 $55.00 $439,892.12 Tattoo 1767 2265 3.18 7204 $66.00 $475,458.92 Water 1055 1353 1.36 1839 $30.80 $56,656.21 fowl TOTAL 16,743 21,465 $4,075,896.17 $6TT = $1US Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [188] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Table 24: Value [$TT] of harvest for the Period 1993-1994 Species # OF ANIMAL DRESSED DRESSED PRICE TOTAL 74% WT. WT. TT$/kg Value TT$ RETURN 100% Kg/ kgs. 100% Animal Agouti 16741 22623 2.27 51354 $39.60 $2,033,624.29 Cage 75 101 0.00 0 $99.00 $10,033.78 birds Deer 1230 1662 15.91 26445 $55.00 $1,454,475.00 Lappe 1052 1422 10.45 14856 $50.00 $742,797.30 Lizards 252 341 1.82 620 $44.00 $27,270.49 Quenk 239 323 34.09 11010 $55.00 $605,558.18 Tattoo 2620 3541 3.18 11259 $66.00 $743,088.65 Water 2076 2805 1.36 3815 $30.80 $117,512.82 fowl TOTAL 24,285 32,818 $5,734,360.50 $6TT = $1US Table 25: Value [$TT] of harvest for the Period 1994-1995 Species # OF ANIMAL DRESSED DRESSED PRICE TOTAL 85% WT. WT. TT$/kg Value TT$ RETURN 100% Kg/ kgs. 100% Animal Agouti 16900 19882 2.27 45133 $39.60 $1,787,264.47 Cage 63 74 0.00 0 $99.00 $7,337.65 birds Deer 1254 1475 15.91 23472 $55.00 $1,290,956.12 Lappe 1107 1302 10.45 13610 $50.00 $680,479.41 Lizards 479 564 1.82 1026 $44.00 $45,127.44 Quenk 157 185 34.09 6297 $55.00 $346,314.29 Tattoo 1670 1965 3.18 6248 $66.00 $412,352.47 Water 1494 1758 1.36 2390 $30.80 $73,624.32 fowl TOTAL 23,124 27,205 $4,643,456.17 $6TT = $1US In 1995 these meats sold for between TT$30.00/kg and TT$66.00/kg depending on the species. But in 2004 these same meats sold for between $111 TT [$18 US] to $198 TT [$33 US]/kg dressed carcass. There is no official pricing structure in the industry and prices are determined mainly by supply and demand. The prices used in this report are prices estimated by the Wildlife Section, Forestry Division. However, the prices of caged birds may reach as high as TT$5,000/ bird, if the bird is a very good whistler. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [189] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] What is most interesting is the quantum of each of the species being hunted and removed from production in the wild. The earlier information (1990-1995) suggested that on average at least 18,660 Agouti, 1,604 Deer, 1,395 Lappe, and 313 Quenk/ Collared Peccary are harvested from the wild annually (calculated from Mollineau et al 2000). How sustainable is this we do not know, but the work of Nelson (1996) suggested that wildlife populations sizes may be decreasing. He based his conclusion on the results of a regression of catch versus effort for species harvested. The regression revealed a negative relationship, suggesting that wildlife species were being over-exploited. He estimated that the population sizes were declining at a rate of 15% per annum. He also used regression analysis to estimate agouti populations before harvesting. He estimated the approximate population numbers for 1990, 1991 and 1993, to have been 23,700, 14,391 and 11,745 respectively. His concern was so alarming that he recommended a 66% reduction in the length of the hunting season. This he said would be a logical first step in reducing hunting pressure, thus allowing wildlife population sizes to recover and maintain their concentrations. Table 26: Number of Animals Harvested during the hunting seasons from 1999 to 2003 TOTAL YEAR YEAR YEAR YEAR (1999-2000) (2000-2001) (2001-2002) (2002-2003) Agouti 17086 17559 22228 24570 Deer 882 1582 1582 1864 Lappe/ Paca 1051 1855 2044 2122 Tattoo 1355 2709 3261 3369 Quenk/ Peccary 162 408 415 531 Birds 58 112 127 144 Waterfowl 2526 3394 3459 3094 Iguana 998 1437 1771 2446 Totals 24118 29056 34887 38140 Table 27 suggests that in 2002-2003 24,570 Agouti were reported as having been harvested by hunters and this was more than twice the number projected by Nelson (1996) for the 1993 Agouti population. In addition Roopchand (2002) conducted an independent study with hunters to test their recall of their catch, and this data suggested that they were underestimating their reported catch (on the official Hunter Return Form) by a factor of 4.7 (the Roopchand Factor). This would take the present Agouti extraction rate at over 100,000 animals per annum. The Agouti population therefore appears resilient, but among the hunted mammals the Wild Hog/ Quenk or Collared Peccary seem to be the one with the lowest extraction numbers. This therefore makes a very strong case for the Quenk/ Peccary to be intensively reared for conservation purposes. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [190] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] IMPORTANT TO NOTE!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! The data presented earlier from Peres (2000) suggested that in the area of the Brazilian Amazon 2 studied the extraction rate of the Collared Peccaries ranged between 0.1 to 0.26 animals/km / 2 annum. In Trinidad and Tobago (that is 4828 km ) the extraction rate or Collared Peccaries is 2 estimated at 0.04 to 0.20 animals/km /annum. If we also correct for the fact that Trinidad and Tobago is 32.8 % forest then the extraction rate would be estimated to be 0.12 to 0.60 2 animals/km /annum, higher than the Amazon extraction rate!. This therefore strengthens the case for the following to occur in Trinidad and Tobago: 1. The need for greater control over hunting and 2. The need for captive rearing of our Neo-tropical wildlife species. 6.2.2.4 Use of Wild meat in Trinidad and Tobago In Trinidad and Tobago, the harvest of wildlife species caters basically to the meat consumption trade for those persons wanting to keep in touch with their primeval roots. Figures 138 to 143 illustrate aspects linked to this wild meat consumption. Figure 138: Urban setting for a Wild Meat Que [Bar B Q] in Trinidad Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [191] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 139: Advertisement for a Wild Meat Que [Bar B Q] in an urban area in Trinidad Figure 140: Details of the advertisement for a Wild Meat Que [Bar B Q] in an urban area in Trinidad Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [192] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 141: Cooking of Wild Meat Que [Bar B Q] in an urban area in Trinidad Figure 142: The Presentation of Cooked Wild Meat at a Wild Meat Que [Bar B Q] in an urban area in Trinidad Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [193] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 143: The served Wild Meat Que [Bar B Q] in an urban area in Trinidad [cooked mixed wild meat stew served with boiled dasheen (Clocasia esculenta (L.) Schott.) and Cassava (Manihot esculenta)] Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [194] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 6.2.3 Wildlife Utilization by Restaurants in French Guyana Unlike what obtains in Trinidad Bemelmans (2003) indicated that in French Guiana there were 187 restaurants along the coast of which 27 (14.4%) served Neo-tropical wild-meat. The meats of wildlife species (also called “Gibier”) that were the most represented on the menus were as follows:  Pakira [Collared Peccary- Tayassu tajacu] 85.2 %  Cochon Bois [White lipped Peccary- T. pecari] 85.2 %  Maipouri [Tapir- Tapirus terestris ] 85.2 %  Agouti [Agouti- Dasyprocta leporina] 51.9 %  Paca [Lappe- Agouti paca] 51.9 %  Cabiaï [Capibara- Hydrochaeris hydrochaerus] 44.4 %  Tatou [Tatoo- Dasypus novemcinctus, D. kappleri] 40.7 %  Hocco [Crax alector] 29.6 %  Iguane [Green iguana – Iguana iguana] 18.5 %  Marail [Penelope marail] 11.1 %  Agami [Psophia crepitans] 11.1 %. 6.2.3.1 Background to the Wild-meat trade in French Guyana Bemelmans (2003) reported that a very high consumer demand existed for Neo-tropical wild meat in French Guiana. The market channels that she described were based on an analysis of her findings as well as those reported by Magrat (2000) and Jori and Bonando (2001). This is presented in Figure 144. Bemelmans (2003) summary of the situation was as follows. 1. The hunters existed, but it was difficult to evaluate their impact and the exact numbers of hunters, as there was no formal hunting organization and no hunting permits were issued. 2. Hunting could be a full-time or part-time form of employment. 3. In the North of French Guiana the full time hunters were more important, and subsistence hunting predominated in the South. 4. Some restaurants specialized in wild meat and are called “Les Restaurants de haut de gamme” and catered to a unique social level. 5. Some restaurants of “Cuisine metropolataine” would only cook wild meat for requested functions. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [195] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 6. Wild meat was sold only at the following markets, St. Laurent du Maroni and St. Georges de l’Oyapock. 7. The consumers of wild meat were both rural and urban (on special festive occasions) and occasional (mainly visitors and tourists). HUNTERS Independent Employed Pleasure Professional / Hunters Hunters/Part Time Full Time 70 % 26 % 4 % Whole Sale Buyers Restaurants / Markets Rural and Urban Consumers Figure 144: Schematics of the actors in the trade in Neo-tropical Wild Meat in French Guiana 6.2.3.2 The amount of neo-tropical Wild-meat consumed in French Guiana Tyburn (1994) reported that when wild meat was sold in the Cayenne market the amount sold was 23 tonnes of wild meat carcasses/year. In Bemelmans 2003 study there were 185 registered restaurants, and of these seventy (70) were contacted and 47 responded to her request for an interview. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [196] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Total of known restaurants in French Guiana = 185 Number Interviewed = 47 (25.4%) Number Selling Wildlife dishes = 27 (14.61%) Number Selling Metropolitan dishes = 20 (10.8%) [Source: Bemelmans (2003)]. This survey in 2003 led Bemelmans (2003) to estimate that the restaurants which served wild meat (Gibier) had a potential annual demand of 36.42 tonnes. This was based on the information obtained from the Cayenne restaurants which comprised about 50% of the sample size. 6.2.3.3 Supply of Wild-meat to the Restaurants in French Guiana The sources of wild-meat supplied to the restaurants surveyed in French Guyana came from the follows:  Hunters 67 %  Wholesalers 8 %  Own source 8 %  Market 4 %  Private 4%. They also indicated that the wild meat was purchased in either of two forms:  Some 52% as predetermined cuts and  33% as the whole animal with skin. Total 85% of the respondents. 6.2.3.4 Approaches used in choosing Wild-meat for use by the Restaurants in French Guiana The findings from thirty three percent (33%) of the responses given this question indicated that the following were a listing of the criteria that they used when buying Neo- tropical meat: 1. Overall appearance- Overall appearance 2. Colour------- The Colour of the muscle 3. Odour-------- The Odour of freshness or rancidity 4. Texture-------The Texture and firmness of the flesh 5. Price---------- Price of the meat offered 6. Age------------Age of the animal (30% of the restaurants) 7. Presentation-The method used in cutting up the meat 8. Freshness-----The freshness of the meat judged by the color of the flesh 9. Confidence---The confidence or trust between the owner and the hunter. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [197] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] The Wild Meat Menu The menus surveyed indicated that the most popular meats were the Collared Peccary (Tayassu tajacu), the White-lipped Peccary , the Tapir, the Agouti (Dasyprocta leporina), the Paca (Agouti paca), the Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) and the Nine-banded Amadillo/Tattoo (Dasypus novemcinctus). Types of Wildlife Dishes The types of dishes served in restaurants were generally in the following forms: o Stewed 67 % o Steak 49 % (Tapir) o Other 25 % The dishes had a range of prices as indicated below: Average Wild meat plate - 12.4 Euros Tapir Steaks - 15.7 Euros Whole Menu - 23.0 Euros. A commentary: in the average plate or portion, there was approximately 250 grams (g) of meat. Thus the sale of the cooked wild meat was in the order of 50 E / kg. [Note one (1) E = 1.3 -1.7 US$ in August 2004]. Quantity of Wild meat Sold in the Restaurants Twenty three [23] of the 27 restaurants responded to this question. The total response was 1005.6 kg/ month with an average of 43.72 kg/ restaurant/ month. Bemelmans (2003) then estimated that the potential total demand for wild meat from the restaurants in French Guiana was 36,419 kg/year, (approximately 36 TONNES PER ANNUM). The Collared Peccary represents about 10-15 % of the total wild meat market. This represents between 260 -290 peccaries per annum. 6.2.4 Wild Meat Sale and Marketing to the Public In Trinidad and Tobago wild meat is sold by:  Hunters and  Few Supermarkets- Initiatives are in place at Persad’s Supermarket in Rio Claro [Figure 145] and the Triangle Supermarket in Chase Village. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [198] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 145: Cut up Agouti being sold in Persaud’s Supermarket in Rio Claro, Trinidad and Tobago The initiative of Mr.Trevor Rattansingh of the Triangle Supermarket in Chase Village is instructive. He purchases hot or chilled whole eviscerated carcasses, with the feet intact, to ensure freshness, wholesomeness and authenticity of the carcasses. Peccaries are purchased without the head, but the meats of the Agouti, Lappe/Paca and Manicou are all purchased with the head. The animals are then frozen and sold either whole or cut-up frozen. In French Guiana wild meat is sold:  At the St. Laurent Market  At the Cayenne Market [outside at about 30 E/ 2-4 lbs Agouti]. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [199] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 146: Smoked Armadillo [Dasypus novemcintus] being sold in the Saint Laurent market in French Guyana Figure 147: Smoked fresh water fish being sold in the Saint Laurent market in French Guyana In Suriname wild meat or wild animals are sold:  In the Paramaribo Market  At special roadstands, Fish and “Bush” markets. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [200] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 148: Smoked Peccary [P. tajacu or T. tajacu] being sold in the Paramaribo market in Suriname Figure 149: Smoked Peccary [P. tajacu or T. tajacu] being sold in the Paramaribo market in Suriname Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [201] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 150: Smoked Quenk and Fresh Lappe [Agouti paca] being sold in the market in Paramaribo, Suriname In Iquitos, Peru wild meat or wild animals are sold:  In the Public Market Figure 151: Peccary and Agouti paca meat being sold fresh in the Iquitos Market in Peru Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [202] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 152: Smoked Peccary meat being sold in the Iquitos Market in Peru Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [203] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 6.3 THE CONVERSION OF ANIMALS’ MUSCLE TO MEAT These two upcoming sections [6.3 and 6.4] have been written to explain to you how the live animal is transformed from being on the hoof [alive] to meat suitable for human consumption. This would then lead us logically to Peccary Cuisine. Conversion of Animals’ Muscle to Meat: The Harvesting of Muscle from Animals This section attempts to simplify for you the process of converting animal muscles and edible parts into safe and wholesome edible animal products. It should be pointed out here that the unique features of the many Neo-tropical meats are still to be understood. The harvesting of muscle from live animals requires that the animals must first be certified to be of good health, then the animals’ lives must be terminated and finally the meat and other animal products removed from the lifeless animal. Finally, the animal products so harvested must then be certified safe for human consumption. This set of activities can be simplified as follows: Ante Mortem [AM] Inspection This is the inspection of the animal 24 hours before slaughter (before the animal is humanely put to death). First there is the external physical examination, the taking of the rectal temperature (to ensure that the animal is in a normal state of health) and the physical examination of the animal to ensure that the animal does not display any obvious signs of disease. Animal Slaughter Next in the process flow is animal slaughter. It is the steps involved in taking the animals’ life and safely collecting the products from its lifeless body. Before slaughter, however, the animal must be fasted/or not fed for 24 hours. A very important feature of this process is the live animal entering at one end of the facility to the kill floor, and its parts [containing the parts of the digestive system] coming out in one direction and the edible meat and organs in the opposite direction. This ensures that the edible meat and organs are not contaminated by the faeces or contents of the digestive system. Post Mortem [PM] Inspection This involves the inspection of  the Animal’s Head and Glands around the neck region;  the Liver  Kidneys Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [204] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005]  Heart and  The general condition of the carcass. Figure 153 presents the process flow chart for the general harvesting of muscle from different kinds of animals. The Conversion of Muscle to Meat The muscle on the animal at slaughter is a living tissue with complex biochemical and physiological properties. We impose a series of treatments, changing its temperature, tension, and fluid and gaseous environment, and it changes from muscle to meat. Living muscle tissue In living muscle, the complete oxidation of carbohydrate to carbon dioxide and water requires the intervention of oxygen, and it releases a lot of energy. Much of this energy is captured by adding a phosphate group to another molecule that already contains two phosphate groups. This chemical in the muscle tissue is called adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and it is converted to adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The ATP molecule carries this energy within the muscle fibre, and it may be released to another biochemical system by cleaving off the added phosphate (ATP →ADP + P). Muscle contraction is a primary user of ATP in the living animal, but substantial amounts of ATP are also used by the membranes around and within the fibre for maintaining ionic concentration gradients. The muscle tissue after exsanguinations [bleeding] Once the animal has been exsanguinated, the oxygen present within the muscles is rapidly used up effectively starting the process of converting muscle to meat. Rigor Mortis Rigor mortis is a Latin word which means “stiffness to death”. This is the changes in the contraction and relaxation of the muscles of animals that occur after death at ambient temperature. It is simply stated as the temporary stiffening of a body after death. It can also be referred to as the state a body reaches when the oxygen supply to the muscles ceases by the cells but continue to respire without oxygen. In the literature there is no information on the changes that takes place in the muscles of the Peccary after death. We know that rigor mortis affects cooking and eating quality of the meats from ruminants, and less so in pigs, therefore it may be that the meat of the peccary with respect to rigor mortis may be somewhat in between that of pigs and ruminants. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [205] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 153: The Harvesting of Muscle from Animals [Source: Gary Garcia (unpublished)] Ante-Mortem Head Removal Post Mortem Inspection Inspection [Decapitation] Of Head & Edible Organs Stunning/ Electrocution & Cutting the Jugular Post Mortem Inspection Of Hoisted Carcass Removal of Feet Bleeding Blood Collection Cattle and Buffalo Skinning [Ruminants and Mammals] Cattle Carcass Hung then Quartered; Or Hung at ambient temperature of chilled for Scaulding [Peccaries, Pigs and 12 to 24 hours for rigor mortis to be Poultry] completed; then the quarters are aged or and/ or frozen; Meat could be then cut up fresh, Removal of Hair and Feathers frozen or chilled. or Singeing/ Roasting of Hair [Small Chicken Mammals] Chickens are first stunned/electrocuted. (this imparts a unique flavor to the Then their jugular is cut and the animals meat) are bled. Immediately after slaughter the eviscerated chickens are chilled in cubed ice or placed in water chilled with cubed Hoisting by Hind Legs ice. Pigs and Peccaries Carcass Halved then Chilled before Evisceration freezing in a hung state. Tie off rectum at anus Removal of the intact GIT from anus to oesophagus Carcass sold whole or dissected into Differentiated cuts and sold Removal of Internal Organs, Lungs, Heart, Kidney, Spleen and Liver for Post Mortem Inspection For the Peccary: Post Mortem Inspection 1. removal of the dorsal Of scent glands Internal Organs 2. removal of the internal lymph glands - Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [206] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Aging Figure 154: Relationship between meat tenderness and Aging Source: Processing of Wild Game and Fish; College of Agricultural Sciences, Penn State University, USA. Aging of meat is also known as seasoning, ripening or conditioning. This is the practice of holding carcasses or cuts under low controlled temperature and humidity for several days to enhance flavor, to tenderize them and to complete the curing reactions. Game meat or wild meat is aged to tenderize the meat, this occurs when enzymes breakdown or degrade complex proteins in the muscles of the dead animals over time. Figure 155 above presents this relationship. The meat has to be held cooled at between 1 to 5 ºC. Peccary meat could possibly be aged with the skin on it but the Dorsal Scent Gland must be removed. This is an area of immediately needed research for the Peccary. Mc Andrew (1993) in his book on the cooking of “Poultry and Game” has suggested the following hanging times for different European Wild animals:  Rabbits: 2-3 days  Hares: 4-5 days  Venison/Deer: 7-12 days. This type of information is still to be determined, however, for the meats of our neo- tropical wildlife species. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [207] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 155: Factors affecting the quality of a cut of beef. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [208] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Factors Affecting the Quality of a Cut of Meat (Beef) Figure 155 presents graphically the known factors affecting the quality of a cut of domestic beef. These factors and their effect on meat quality will now be explained.  The age of the animal: Generally the older the animal gets the tougher the meat.  The sex of the animal: Generally the meat produced from a mature male is tougher than the meat coming from a young male or female.  The location of the muscle: The active muscles tend to be tougher, see the previous figure.  Aging: Aged meat is generally more tender.  Post Mortem Changes- the onset of rigor mortis: If the carcass is frozen before the completion of Rigor Mortis the meat tends to be tough.  Method of cutting the meat: Always cut meat across the muscle or at right angles to the direction of the length of the muscle, when the meat is cut along the length of the muscle when it is cooked it is tough to eat.  Marbling: When the cut of meat is well marbled [i.e. when it has fat distributed throughout the muscle] it can be easily baked or grilled. Meat that is not well marbeled must be baked or grilled using moist heat cooking or must have fat or oil added to it during the cooking process. Without the fat or oil the meat would be quite dry when cooked. The meat of the Peccary is low in fat and there does not seem to be the evidence of marbling.  Castration: Generally the meat from castrated males tends to be more tender than the meat from uncastrated males. However, see the note below with respect to the peccary. A Note on the Effect of Castration on Meat Quality Coser- Junior et al (2002) reported that castration had no effect on the carcass traits and meat quality of the Collared Peccary. These animals were reared in captivity and were killed at 300 days of age and weighed 17kg live weight. So they were not very old, which could have influenced the meat quality. Effect of pH on meat quality - water-holding The pH of meat generally declines after slaughter as the lactate accumulates as a by- product of the process which releases energy in an attempt to keep the cell alive. This also decreases the water holding capacity of the meat. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [209] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 6.4 THE CONVERSION OF PECCARY ANIMAL TO MEAT 6.4.1 Peccary Slaughter and Dressing When the animal is hunted it is usually shot in the head. However, in an intensive farming situation it is best to restrain the animal and stun it using a “captive bold piston gun”. A soon as the animal goes down it is best to cut its jugular and then bleed the animal (exsanguinations). Figure 153 describes the process flow for generalized animal slaughter. After exsanguinations what is done next will be based on if you are going to skin the animal for the skin to be preserved for later use or if you are going to use it for meat with the skin intact. There are two approaches in extracting the meat from the animal as follows: 1. Skinning the animal first: or 2. Not Skinning the animal, and this would involve: (i) Burning off the hair, or (ii) Scraping off the hair using boiling water. General practices for either approach The very first word of caution is “do not allow the knife to cut the external part of the dorsal scent gland”. If the animal is going to be skinned to preserve the skin the dorsal scent gland comes off with the skin. If the animal is going to be used for meat with the skin intact, then the dorsal scent gland must be carefully cut off as shown in Figure 161 and 162. The standard techniques used for slaughtering small ruminants are applicable to the Peccary but with the caution as stated above. Figure 153 presents the generalized slaughter process as earlier stated. 1. Skinning the Animal Start with the Peccary on its back. Make cuts from the inside of the legs from below the knee to the belly incision. You should skin out the hind quarters by cutting around the hock and peeling the hide back. Remember do not cut into dorsal the scent glad, it will peel off with the hide. Hang the Peccary from the hind legs and pull the hide down, using your knife as required, to the base of the skull. Make a circular cut around the neck to the bone at the base of the skull. Hold the skull stationary, while turning the body and the body would separate from the skull. Once the skinning is finished, split the chest, remove any remaining viscera in the upper rib cage and neck area. Remove any hair and debris by washing with clean cool water. Cover carcass and hang. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [210] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 156: Mature Peccaram [29kg Figure 157: Mature Peccaram [29kg Liveweight] Liveweight], shot in the head. Note:The showing the long canines long canines and the testicles. Figure 158: Mature Peccaram [29kg Liveweight]. Figure 159: Hot water being thrown on the skin Note: The testicles and the Dorsal Scent Gland. of the Peccaram to facilitate easy hair removal Figure 161: After the hair has been scraped off Figure 160: Hair removal by scraping with a the carcass is washed, precaution must be taken knife, note that the Dorsal Sent Gland is kept not to scrape the Dorsal gland as this has to be intact. cut out as shown in the next figure. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [211] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 163: Eviseration of the Peccaram carcass Figure 162: Dorsal Gland cut off [bottom left hand corner of the picture] and eviceration begins Figure 164: Removal of Testicular and Figure 165: Removal of Testicular and Glandular Tissues Glandular tissue Figure 167: The Four Quarters of the Peccaram Figure 166: The Four Quarters Carcass Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [212] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 2. Not Skinning the Animal If the hair is going to be burned - hold the animal over a fire and slowly roast off the hair, then scrape and follow the procedure as described below. If the hair is going to be scraped off with boiling water then follow the steps as shown in Figures 156 to 161. Place the Peccary on its back. Starting at the anus, cut through the skin around the anus (and sows genitals as applicable). Pull colon free far enough to tie off with string. Normally, at this point you will need to clean fecal matter which was "produced" during this step. Be sure to clean knife and area thoroughly with water to prevent contamination with meat during remainder of the dressing process (Figure 162). Next slit the abdomen using your fingers to guide the knife and keep the blade away from the stomach and intestines. Remember keep the knife at a low angle and cut only deep enough to slice through the skin. You can split the rib cage next (Figure 163). The diaphragm separates the chest and body cavities and must be cut away. Reach inside the chest cavity and loosen the heart, liver, and lungs from connective tissues. Use a plastic bag to put the heart and liver in. Roll the carcass on its side so you can remove the entrails. Most of the entrails will pull away easily. Carefully cut and loosen any connective tissues-Pay attention NOT to puncture the bladder. Ensure the colon and anus which were tied with string pull back through the pelvic channel. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [213] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] CARCASS EVALUATION OF AN OLD MALE PECCARY The carcass data on the male slaughtered in French Guiana in Figures 156 to 167 are presented below. Estimated Age >10 Years: Estimated Live Weight = 29.47 kg. Carcass Weight (kg) % Live Weight. % Carcass Component Head 3.07 10.25 Liver, Heart, Lungs 0.91 3.10 Stomach &Intestines 2.90 9.68 Front Leg (left) 4.25 14.19 19.0 Ribs 2.27 7.58 12.4 Front Leg (right) 4.10 13.69 18.4 Ribs 2.53 8.45 11.4 Hind Leg & Foot (L) 4.45 14.86 20.0 Hind Leg & Foot (R) 4.19 13.99 18.8 Hind Gland 0.16 0.53 Blood 0.64 2.13 29.95 98.45 100.0 TOTAL DRESSING PERCENTAGE = (21.79/29.47) x 100/1 = 73.9 % Subsequent to this in Trinidad and Tobago we were able to describe different cuts for the peccary carcass along those already known for the Domestic Pig. These are shown in Figures 168 to 173. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [214] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 6.5 THE FABRICATION OF A PECCARY CARCASS Figure 168: The Left Half of a Peccary Carcass Figure 169: The Right Half of a Peccary Carcass Figure 170: The Left Leg of a peccary Carcass Figure 171: The Disected Sholder of a Peccary Carcass Figure 173: The Loin of a Peccary Carcass Figure 172: The Ribs of a peccary Carcass Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [215] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Animal Carcass Fabrication: Animal carcass fabrication is defined as the cutting up of the carcass into its component parts for culinary purposes. This is necessary for the following reasons: 1. in order to obtain the maximum added value from each cut of meat; 2. to be able to have cuts of meat suited to specific or specialized dishes; 3. to be able to get the highest price possible for the higher valued cuts; 4. to be able to make the best possible use of the carcass; Table 27: The Names of the different wholesale cuts of a Quenk/ Peccary Carcass English French Spanish Portuguese % Carcass Weight Head Tete Cabeza Cabeca Lomo/ Lombo/ 18 % Loin Chop/ Cadre & Filet Filete/ Tenderloin Solomillo Barriga/ Barriga, bojo 8 % Plait de Cotes Belly vientre & Poitrine Paletilla Paleta 34 % includes Blade Bone Palette Blade Bone and Spare ribs Spare Ribs Echine Costillas Costela Mano y 6 % Hand, Hock Jambonneau & pieds and Knuckle Pied Leg Jambon/ Jambe Pierna Perna 34 % Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [216] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 6.6 PECCARY CUISINE In French Guiana wildlife cuisine in the mainstay at Agro-tourism locations called “Ferme Auberge”. Translated into English this means “Inn on the Farm”. One such location is “Ma Cuisine” just outside of Kourou [Figures 174 and 180]. Their menu carries “Fricassée de gibier ou volaille de la Ferme”….in English this means “Stewed Wildlife or Farm Grown Birds” [Figure 177 presents the menu]. The specialty of this “Ferme Auberge” is “Fricassée de Peccary”, and the recipe’s secret is carefully guarded by Mrs. Clermont. However, careful review of their menu would reveal truly Neo- tropical Gastronomy [Figure 178]. Figure 174: Mr. Jean Claude Azema and Mrs. Ginette Clermont of “Ma Cuisine” and their guests who are farmers from France [July 2004]. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [217] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 175: Front Entrance of “Ma Cuisine” showing the “Ferme Auberge” certification Figure 176: Front Entrance of “Ma Cuisine” showing the “Ferme Auberge” certification Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [218] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 177: La Carte [The Menu] of “Ma Cuisine”. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [219] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 178: The Guests of “Ma Cuisine” who are farmers from France. Figure 179: The Guests of “Ma Cuisine” who are farmers from France. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [220] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Approximate % of Carcass English French American Uses [Weight from a 20kg Carcass] Roasting, baking and boiling eg. 1 Leg Jambon Leg (ham) 34 % Roast Leg of Peccary in Moist [6.8 kg] Heat Boiling, Pickling, Roasting eg. Plait de Spare 8 % Bar-b-que spare ribs, but must 2 Belly & Ribs Cotes & Ribs/Belly [1.6 kg] first be steamed and then braised Poitrine in an oil based Bar B Q sauce. Roasting, frying, and grilling eg. Loin Cadre & 18 % 3 Lion Roast Loin of Peccary, but must Chop/Tenderloin Filet [3.6 kg] be cut up thin 4 Boston Butt and Palette and Blade 34 % Roasting and Stewing in Moist & Picnic Shoulder Echine Bone [6.8 kg] Heat 5 Hand, Hock and Jambonneau Shoulder 6 % 6 Stewing Knuckle & Pied & Trotter [1.2 kg] Figure 180: Cooking Uses of a Fabricated Carcass Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [221] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 1. Table 11 on page 74 indicated that it has an average protein/crude protein content of 20.9 % and it is very low in fat [1.24 % Ether Extract or Fat]. Lappe (Agouti paca) meat has five times the fat content of peccary meat while Rabbit meat has about six times the fat content and Pork has at least eight to ten times the fat content of peccary meat. Thus peccary meat is therefore very low in fat. The meat has to be cooked in such a way that it will be kept moist throughout the cooking process. 2. Peccary meat that has been hunted will also tend to be tough for the following reasons:  the animals would not have been slaughtered under calm conditions  The carcass may or may not have been hung (or aged) before freezing, and  therefore it may have been frozen before the completion of rigor mortis. It is best to purchase quartered chilled carcasses. Do not buy frozen Peccary meat if you have no experience. The foot/hooves must be on each quarter to ensure that it is peccary and not pork meat (see Figures 128, 136). Figure 180 suggests some cooking uses for the fabricated carcass; but you should always remember that whatever you decide to do you must use a “moist heat”, or moist cooking technique. This is important because peccary meat is low in fat and this would lead to the drying out of the meat during cooking. This is a technique of cooking in liquid or baking in sealed containers with tight lids or covered with foil. The objective is to cook the meat in a broth or with steam, to keep the meat moist at all times throughout the cooking process. Peccary meat has its own unique flavor: it is exotic, it has a wild flavor, it is very different from and much tastier than Pork. In order to capture the true flavor of this meat it is always best to marinate it for at least 12 hours but preferably for 24 hours. This meat makes good stews. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [222] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] The following are five recipes for which peccary meat can be used. 1. Fricassée de Cochon Bois [(Adam 2002)] You might want to bake this in a Baking or Roasting Pan with a cover or bake in a container covered and sealed with foil. This recipe is best used for mixed cuts of meats or for the meat of very mature animals, 2. Cuisseau de Pakira au Four / Roasted Loin of Quenk/Pakira [Bergeon-Marty & Albert (2002)] – Baking time: 1 hr 20 mins 3. Pernil assado/Roasted or Baked Peccary Leg [Nogueira Filoh, (1999)] Bake sealed in foil for about 2 hours) 4. Carne ao Molho de Vino/Loin in Wine Sauce [Nogueira Filoh (1999)] 5. Goulash [Nogueira Filoh (1999)] Meats from Coloured Peccary and White Lipped Peccary have idiosyncratic flavour, typical of games of pray, each one with its own characteristics, and much more tasteful than meat from tamed pigs. It is always advisable to marinate these meats from 12 to 24 hours, in a clay or china recipient, in dry white wine and other seasonings, in order to enhance and intensify their flavour. If roasted, they should be served with sauce made of fruits like jabuticaba (a cherry like Brazilian berry), currant, mango, or bittersweet sauces. Because of their low level of fat, both the Coloured Peccary and White Lipped Peccary have a better taste if stewed or cooked in the Goulash way. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [223] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Ingredients 1-5kg white lipped/collared peccary meat 1 Bouquet Garni – a bunch of herbs consisting of 2 bundles of chives 2 bunches celery 2 bunches parsley 2 6-8 inch small stems or bundles of fine leaf or French thyme 2-3 Cayenne peppers 2 large Onions 5 mls Cooking Wine 6 heads of garlic 6-8 cloves, piece of ginger, salt, oil, vinegar, black pepper, 4-6 bay leaves, ground all spice (bois d’Inde) 2- 4 large West Indian peppers Method 1. Cut up the meat and wash with lime. 2. Leave to marinate for 24 hours with vinegar, lime, black pepper, salt, garlic, 5ml wine, all-spice, and cloves 3. Boil the meat for 20 minutes or so in plenty water [but save the marinate liquid for further use]. Drain off the water 4. Marinate the meat again with some of the spices. 5. Brown the meat in hot oil to get it golden. 6. Add the ginger, the spices (except the onion) and brown for five minutes. 7. Add the onion, lime juice, the juice from the marinade and simmer for 15 minutes 8. Season to taste and cover with water and allow to boil for 1-1/2 hours. Another process may be to bake or broil with the addition of some oil. Marinating for 24 hours allows the spices, etc. to penetrate the meat; a modification of this might be to marinate for about 2 to 3 hours at ambient temperature and between steps 3 and 4, steam the meat with about half of a finely chopped green papaya with the skin. This would be to help tenderize the meat. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [224] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 181: Fricassee de Peccary et Citrouille [Stewed Peccary and Pumpkin]-Entrée Figure 182: Fricassee de Peccary- Main Meal Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [225] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Ingredients 1] 2-1/2 kg Loin 2] Potatoes 3] Herbs/spices of the province/bouquet garni (see previous recipe), salt, black pepper, oil Method 1. Scald and scrape the skin of the loin, but do not remove the skin. 2. Saturate/soak with oil, salt and herbs and then heat the oven. 3. Wash the potatoes with the skin and cut into two. 4. In a saucer, mix the seasoning ingredients and mix with the potatoes. 5. 30 minutes before completion of baking open the oven and put in the marinated potatoes around the loin with the cut sides of the potatoes facing upwards for them to obtain a golden color. 6. Bake for about 1 hour twenty minutes. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [226] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 1kg of leg 50g of green spices ½ nutmeg 1 large red pepper 2 bay leaves 80g of pit less black olives 80g of pit less green olives 150g of onions cut in small pieces (julienne) 2 crushed garlic cloves ½ cup of limejuice ½ cup of red wine vinegar 1 cup of water Salt (at your discretion, or a flat soup spoon for each Kilogram of meat) 1. Put together all ingredients for the seasoning; 2. Clean and wash the leg with lime, make holes in it with a knife, and put salt on the outside, and inside the holes; 3. Insert olives, green seasoning and other seasoning in the holes; 4. Let it marinate for at least 12 hours, from one day to the other; 5. Wrap it up in foil and roast until it becomes tender (2 hours for large pieces); 6. Unwrap foil in order to give the meat some color; 7. Suggestion for Sauce: put seasoning apart and liquify it; prepare a tick sauce with corn flour, put it in a pan, and bring it to boil always stirring with a wooden spoon. Serve separately from the meat. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [227] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 1.5kg of loin ½ cup of dry white wine 2 leaves of bay ¼ of a teaspoon of black pepper 1 teaspoon of red pepper sauce ½ cup of oil Salt at you discretion 1. Season meat with salt, pepper, wine and chopped bay leaves. Make holes in the loin with an ice pick on a narrow knife to the meat retain the sauce; 2. Let it marinate from one day to another; 3. Fry it on oil, pouring water occasionally to give it colour. Add the sauce after it acquired color. 4. Cut the meat in slices; 5. Drain what was fried, add water, make it ticker with corn flour, and spread it over the sliced meat; 6. The sauce should have a light, suave, taste, with no wine in excess. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [228] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] 800g of muscle or loin 200ml of oil 2 big onions cut in small pieces (julienne) 1 liqueur glass of cognac 3 ripe tomatoes 2 cups of dry white wine 1 litre of meat broth 4 large potatoes pealed and cut in cubes 4 carrots cut in thick circular slices A pinch of basil A pinch of paprika 1 leaf of bay 30g of green spices Salt and black pepper at your discretion 1. Clean the meat, take the bones out, and cut it in medium size cubes. Put them in a recipient of clay or china, together with the white wine, tomatoes, onions, carrots, green seasoning, basil, salt, and pepper. Leave it marinating for 12 hours in the fridge. Put the bones and some cubes with fat in a large cooking pan, add one litre of water and bring to boil in order to prepare the meat broth. 2. Fry the meat in portions, until it acquires a golden color, with little oil. 3. Put the fried meat and the rest of the ingredients in a deep cooking pan. Add the tomato pulp and half of the meat broth. Cook it for 30 minutes in high flame. Add the cognac and make it flambé. 4. Dilute the paprika separately in some broth, drain it to avoid sticking and unnecessary thickness, add the remaining broth, and pour a little of water in the event of the sauce becomes too thick. Taste it for the salt. 5. Cook it in low flame for five minutes, stirring occasionally with a wooden spoon. Serve in a deep recipient. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [229] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Part 7 Some comments on what research still needs to be done with the Peccary Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [230] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Figure 183: A Semi-domesticated peccary in Brazil receiving a melon from a stranger 1. There is need to conduct studies on the post slaughter changes in the chemical composition and structure of the Peccary meat. 2. Culinary Studies; Comparison of the organoleptic qualities of Peccary meat, Poultry and Pork using different cooking techniques. 3. Animal Handling and Restraint techniques; The design and testing of efficient animal handling equipment that is cheap, portable and efficient. 4. Animal Psychology Studies. 5. Dental Manipulation of the Animals 6. Nutritional Studies 7. Reproductive Studies (i) Super ovulation studies aimed at getting the animals to produce multiple births, 3 and 4 offspring/ parturition. (ii) Super-ovulation and Embryo transfer studies 8. Genetic Studies 9. Scent Gland Studies 10. Techniques for captive reared animals to be re introduced into the wild. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [231] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] PART 8 GLOSSARY OF TERMS Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [232] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [233] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [234] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] GLOSSARY OF TERMS  Anus: This is a horizontal cleft bordered by two large labia, that facilitates the removal of waste from the intestines at the end of the large intestine.  Cecum and Colon: These sac-like structures hold ingesta (food and other substances that is eaten by the animal) to facilitate the removal of water and electrolytes (minerals). The cecum of ruminants is not very well developed and plays a rather insignificant role in digestion. The cecum in herbivours [sheep, goats, cattle, horses] and rodents function as digestors of fibrous materials such as forages. Avians have two blind sacs (ceca) where a limited amount of bacterial activity and subsequent absorption has been observed.  Creep Feeding: This is the provision of special feeds for the suckling animals behind a slatted partition that does not admit adults. This is done to get the suckling animal on to solid feed as early as possible to facilitate early weaning. This is particularly important with animals which show Lactational anoestrous.  Estrus: Period of sexual receptivity of the male by the female and the time during which conception is possible.  Estrous/ Oestrous Cycle: The reproductive cycle in the female of which estrus is a part.  Forages/ Roughages: These are derived from the green plant material produced by photosynthesis. They contain fibre that is eaten and digested by ruminants. Wilted plant materials such as hays would not therefore be green.  Gestation length: Length of pregnancy.  Herbivours: Animals that eat grasses and forages. Those that have a single stomach are called Mono-gastric Herbivours, and those with four stomach compartments are called Ruminants.  Lactation period: The length of time the female is able to produce milk.  Lactational anestrus: No oestrous cycling while the animal is lactating, so no estrus/ heat occurs.  Large Intestines: In addition to being a passage-way for waste materials, it absorbs water from the mass that comes from the small intestines. It consists of the cecum and colon.  Length of the oestrous cycle: The number of days between successive estrus/ oestrus/ heat periods, [period of receptivity of the male by the female].  Litter interval/Parturition interval: The number of days between successive parturitions  Liver: The liver comprises two lobes, and incorporates the gallbladder. Its primary role in digestion and absorption is the production of bile. Bile facilitates the solubilization and absorption of dietary fats, and also aids in the excretion of certain waste products.  Ovulation: The time of the production of the fertile female cells for reproduction.  Parturition: The actual process of giving birth. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [235] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005]  Peccary: This refers to Tayassu tajacu  Peccasow: an adult female peccary  Peccaram: an adult male peccary  Peccayoungsow: a young female peccary  Peccayoungram: a young male peccary  Peccasuckling: a young suckling peccary  Postpartum Estrus: Estrus displayed a short time [up to a few days] after parturition or the bringing forth of the young by the female.  Puberty: The period when the animal’s reproductive organs begin to function.  Rectum: This is a short passage, which empties into the anus.  Rodent: Those animals with very long and continuously growing incisors.  Ruminant: Herbivours that have stomachs with four compartments.  Sexual Maturity: The time in the animal’s life when they are able to successfully reproduce or puberty.  Small Intestines: The walls of the small intestines are lined with many projections called villi. It is through these villi that nutrients are absorbed into the blood and lymph stream, and carried to the various cells throughout the body. The main function of the small intestines is to digest and absorb food nutrients. While digestion is taking place, the muscular walls contribute to the process by rhythmically contracting to mix the food with the digestive juices. This brings the nutrients in contact with the villi for more complete absorption to occur, and pushes the mass along the tract. The small intestines comprise the duodenum, ileum and jejunum.  Stomach: This organ is responsible for churning and mixing ingesta with acidic gastric juices and digestive enzymes. Ruminants have four stomach compartments the Reticulum, Rumen, Omasum and Abomasum. This last one is equivalent to the Mono-gastric or Simple Stomach.  Weaning: The event when the suckling young are removed from the female and no longer are able to get mothers milk.  Weaning age: The age at which weaning takes place. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [236] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] PART 9 LITERATURE CONSULTED Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [237] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] LITERATURE CONSULTED Addo, H. 1996: Developmentalism: A Eurocentric Hoax, Delusion and Chicanery. In The Underdevelopment of Development. Editors, Sing C. Chew and Robert A. Denemark, SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, London, New Delhi, pp 126-148 Adami, P. (2002): La Cuisine Guyanaise par l’image. Saveurs d’Outre-Mer, ORPHIE. Amour, K. M. and Garcia, G. 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Thesis in Livestock Science, The University of the West Indies, Trinidad, Trinidad and Tobago, W.I. 194 pages Brown-Uddenberg, R. C. L., Garcia, G. W., Baptiste, Q. S., Counand, T., Adogwa, A. and Sampson, T. (2004): The Agouti [Dasyprocta leporina] Booklet and Producers’ Manual Wildlife Farmers’ and Producers’ Booklet #1, The Open Tropical Forage-Animal Production Laboratory [OTF-APL], Department of Food Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [239] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Production, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, UWI., GWG Publications, 24 Sagan Drive, Champs Fleurs, Trinidad and Tobago. 108 pages Byers, A. and Bekoff, M. (1981): Social, spacing an co-operative behaviour of the collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu). Journal of Mammalogy 12(4): 67-785. Carl, G. R. and Brown, R. D. (1983): Protozoa in the fore-stomach of the collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu). Journal of Mammalogy 64(4): 709. Carl, G. R. and Brown, R. D. (1985): Protein requirement of adult collared peccaries. 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(1985): Some aspects of the nutritional biology of the collared peccary. Journal of Wildlife Management 49: 729-732. Simpson, C.D. (1984): Artiodactyls. In S. Anderson and J. Knox-Jones Jr. eds. Orders and Families of Recent Mammals of the World. John Wiley and Sons. USA. Pp. 563-576. Sowls, L. K. (1984): The Peccaries. The University of Arizona Press. Tucson, Arizona. 251 pp. Sowls, L. K. (1997): Javelinas and other peccaries: Their biology management and use. nd 2 Edition, Texas A&M University Press. USA. 325pp. Tybrun, J. J. (1994): De la chasse et de la consummation de gibier sur la bande cotiere guyanaise. Memoire de stage DESS Production animals en regions chaudes. Williams, H. E. (2002): The genesis and dynamics of animals and their diseases in the Caribbean (in parallel with human endeavour). J. Caribb. Vet. Med. Assoc. Volume 2, number 1: 12-16 Woodcock, H. I. (1867): A History of Tobago. Frank Cass and company Ltd, 67 Great Russell St., London WC1B 3BT, UK, New Impression of the First edition of 1867, in 1971. Pp 191 – 192. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [246] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] INDEX Aging ....................................................... 213 Crush ....................................................... 156 Agouti Paca ............................................. 190 Dasyprocta Leporina .............................. 190 Amazonian Rain Forest Sites .................. 184 Dasypus Novemcinctus ........................... 190 Animal Longevity .................................... 161 Developing Animal Production Systems Animal Production Systems Approaches ......................................... 108 Intensification ...................................... 107 Didelphis Marsupialis Insularis ............. 190 Animal Slaughter ..................................... 210 Digestive System Ante Mortem ............................................ 210 Dental Formula At Birth ....................... 78 Cactus In Trailers .................................... 151 Dentition ............................................... 78 Caiman Sclerops ...................................... 190 Nutrient Requirements .......................... 82 Carcass Evaluation .................................. 220 Oesophagus ........................................... 79 Carcass Fabrication: .............................. 222 Stomach ................................................. 79 Centro De Cria De Maza Y Sajino ............ 58 Dimension Of A Net ............................... 130 Chambre D’agriculture De La Guyane ..... 54 Dorsal Scent Gland ................................. 216 Chute ............................................... 127, 154 Dressing Percentage ............................... 220 Catagonous Wagneri ................................. 66 Drinking Water Supply ........................... 150 Collard Peccary Earth Oven .............................................. 176 Adaptation To Ambient Temperature .... 76 Embrapa .................................................... 57 Appearance ............................................ 75 Ethno ....................................................... 180 Behaviour ............................................... 91 Exsanguinations ...................................... 211 Body Size ............................................... 76 Feed Storage ........................................... 151 Chemical Composition .......................... 98 Ferme Auberge ....................................... 223 Classification And Names ..................... 72 Flexible Digestive System ...................... 102 Common Names .................................... 73 Forestry Division State Game Licences Demand For Meat ................................ 183 Programme .......................................... 189 Description ............................................. 75 Fresh Water Conch ................................. 173 Diet And Nutrition ................................. 77 Gastros .................................................... 180 Digestive System ................................... 77 Glossary .................................................. 238 Distribution ............................................ 74 Grey Brocket Deer .................................. 183 Extraction Rate .................................... 184 Guillotine Gate ....................................... 154 Peccaram ................................................ 70 Harvesting Of Muscle From Animals ..... 212 Peccasow ................................................ 70 Health And Disease .................................. 93 Peccasuckling......................................... 70 Blook And Renal Profiles ..................... 95 Peccayoungram ...................................... 70 Endo-Parasites ....................................... 94 Peccayoungsow ...................................... 70 Parasite Control ..................................... 95 Pelage ..................................................... 75 Herd Projections ..................................... 116 Restraint And Handling ......................... 92 Housing And Enclosures .......................... 90 Sub Species ............................................ 74 Breeding Unit ...................................... 123 Tayassu Peccary ..................................... 66 Features ............................................... 118 Utilization .............................................. 98 Peccary Restraint ................................ 125 Practical Management .......................... 129 Husbandry Practices ............................... 125 Conch Growing Chambers ...................... 174 Iguana Iguana ......................................... 190 Constraints To The Expansion Of Wildlife Implications Of Intensification ............... 107 ............................................................... 53 INRA ........................................................ 57 Conversion Of Animals’ Muscle To Meat Intensive Animal Production System ............................................................. 210 Principles ............................................. 105 Corral ....................................................... 154 Iquitos I ..................................................... 58 Creep Feeding .......................................... 152 Joao (Neto) Batista ................................. 145 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [247] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Lactation Rigor Mortis ........................................... 211 Composition Of The Milk ...................... 86 River Conch ............................................ 175 Life Cycle ................................................ 112 Role Of Housing ..................................... 108 Living Muscle Tissue .............................. 211 Selection Of Replacements ..................... 132 Lowaland Tapir ....................................... 183 Species Production Modeling ................. 109 Manzama Americana ............................... 190 Strategy ..................................................... 37 Multifunctionality Of Agriculture ........ Xxxii The North American Approach ............. 38 Neo-Tropical Wildlife ............................. 180 Trinidad And Tobago ............................ 38 Cuisine ................................................. 180 Wildlife Conservation In French Guyana Ethnocuisineology ............................... 180 ........................................................... 37 Newborn Peccaries .................................... 67 Wildlife Utilization In Latin America And Open School Of Tropical Animal Science The Caribbean ................................... 37 And Production [OSTAS&P] ................ 45 Summary Of Solutions ............................. 37 Philosophy ............................................. 45 Supply Of Wild-Meat To The Restaurants Assumptions Of The OSTAS&P ........... 45 ............................................................. 203 Ortalis Ruficauda .................................... 190 TASIN ...................................................... 48 Peccary In South America ......................... 59 New Horizons ....................................... 48 Peccary Production System ..................... 112 Tayassu Tajacu ....................................... 190 Physiological State .................................. 106 The Effect Of Castration On Meat Quality Physiological States ................................. 112 ............................................................. 215 Post Mortem ............................................ 210 The Role Of Wildlife Farming ................. 50 Practical Peccary Feeding........................ 131 The Roopchand Factor ............................ 195 Problem With Regard To Neo-Tropical The Value Of Wildlife .............................. 49 Wildlife .................................................. 41 Threats To The Peccary And Wildlife ...... 36 Problematique ........................................ 41 Trade Status .............................................. 99 Production Model .................................... 100 Trinidad And Tobago .............................. 184 Production Parameters ............................. 101 UESC Experimental Farm ...................... 141 Production Units ...................................... 113 Universidad Estadual De Santa Cruz ........ 57 Recipes .................................................... 229 Universidade Federal Do Para .................. 58 Red Brocket Deer .................................... 183 Value [$Tt] Of Harvest ........................... 192 Reported Harvest ..................................... 192 Water Supply System ............................. 126 Reproduction ............................................. 84 White Lipped Peccary .............................. 66 Breeding ................................................. 85 Wholesale Cuts ....................................... 222 Females .................................................. 84 Wild Meat Que ....................................... 198 Gestation ................................................ 85 Wildmeat Lactation ................................................ 86 Approaches Used In Choosing ............ 203 Litter Size ............................................... 86 Dishes .................................................. 204 Males ...................................................... 84 Menu ................................................... 204 Post Partum Estrus ................................. 86 Quantity Sold In Restaurants .............. 204 Reproductive Features ........................... 86 Range Of Prices .................................. 204 Reproductive Parameters ....................... 88 Wild-Meat Consumed In French Guiana 202 Reproductive Potential ........................... 90 Wooden Transport Box. ......................... 158 Weaning ................................................. 90 Zoocriadero Bioam ................................... 58 Restraint With Net ................................... 130 Zoocriado Bioam .................................... 163 Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [248] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] NOTES: _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ 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_____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [249] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] COMMENTS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR THE AUTHORS Dear User, We thank you for having an interest in the Peccary. We would be grateful for any suggestions which you may have for us so that this publication could be improved. Please let us know something about yourself as follows: Name: Address: E-mail: Reasons for your interest in the Quenk/ Peccary: Number of Peccaries you Rear: Your Suggestions: Please tear off this page and mail to: Dr Gary Wayne Garcia The Open Tropical-Forage Animal Production Laboratory [OTF-APL] Department of Food Production, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Trinidad, Trinidad and Tobago, W.I. Or E-mail comments to: garygwg1@yahoo.com Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [250] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] SECTION FOR REVIEWERS’ COMMENTS Dear Reviewer, We thank you for being willing to review this publication, but first please let us know something about yourself as follows: Name: Position: Address: E-mail: Telephone number: Fax number: What is / are your areas of Research or Professional Activity? What are your reasons for your interest in the Peccary? Your Comments please? Do you think that the stated objectives of the book were met? Which part of the book did you enjoy the most and why? Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [251] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Which part of the book did you enjoy the least and why? Please give us your specific comments on Part 1. Please give us your specific comments on Part 2. Please give us your specific comments on Part 3. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [252] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Please give us your specific comments on Part 4. Please give us your specific comments on Part 4. Please give us your specific comments on Part 5. Please give us your specific comments on Part 6. Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [253] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005] Do you have any other comments? __________________________ Your Signature Please? Thank you very much. Please cut off these pages and mail to: Dr Gary Wayne Garcia The Open Tropical-Forage Animal Production Laboratory [OTF-APL] Department of Food Production, Faculty of Science and Agriculture The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Trinidad, Trinidad and Tobago, W.I. OR E-mail comments to: garygwg1@yahoo.com Collared Peccary Farmers Booklet [254] 10/12/2015 Garcia et al [2005]