Student name: Sophia Mohammed Student ID no.: 816027323 Degree Program: BA History Supervisor: Dr Danalee Jahgoo Title of Thesis: The Environmental Impact of the Cedula of Population, 1783 to 1802. Word count: 5866 Declaration 1. I declare that this thesis has been composed solely by myself and that it has not been submitted, in whole or in part, in any previous application for a degree. Except where stated otherwise by reference or acknowledgment, the work presented is entirely my own. 2. I authorise The University of the West Indies to make a physical or digital copy of my thesis/research paper/project report for its preservation, for public reference, and for the purpose of inter-library loan. Signature of Student: Sophia Mohammed Date: 14/04/23 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES The Office of the Board for Undergraduate Studies INDIVIDUAL PLAGIARISM DECLARATION This declaration is being made in accordance with the University Regulations on Plagiarism (First Degrees, Diplomas and Certificate) and should be attached to all work submitted by a student to be assessed as part of or/the entire requirement of the course, other than work submitted in an invigilated examination. Statement 1. I have read the Plagiarism Regulations as set out in the Faculty Handbook and University websites related to the submission of coursework for assessment. 2. I declare that I understand that plagiarism is the use of another’s work pretending that it is one’s own and that it is a serious academic offence for which the University may impose severe penalties. 3. I declare that the submitted work indicated below is my own work, except where duly acknowledged and referenced. 4. I also declare that this paper has not been previously submitted for credit either in its entirety or in part within the UWI or elsewhere. 5. I understand that I may be required to submit the work in electronic form and accept that the University may check the originality of the work using a computer-based plagiarism detection service. TITLE OF ASSIGNMENT – The Environmental Impact of the Cedula of Population, 1783 to 1802. COURSE CODE – HUMN 3099 COURSE TITLE - CARIBBEAN STUDIES PROJECT STUDENT ID - 816027323 By signing this declaration, you are confirming that the work you are submitting is original and does not contain any plagiarised material. I confirm that this assignment is my own work, and that the work of other persons has been fully acknowledged. SIGNATURE – Sophia Mohammed DATE – 14/04/23 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to those who supported me in the completion of this undergraduate thesis. First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr Jahgoo for her guidance and valuable feedback throughout the entire research process. Her constant encouragement, constructive criticism, and insightful suggestions have been instrumental in shaping our research. I would also like to thank Dr. McCollin for introducing me to this topic and encouraging me to pursue it for my final year project. i ABSTRACT This thesis seeks to examine the environmental impact of the Cedula of Population 1783 on Trinidad. It looks at the island prior to the enactment of the Cedula in order to compare and contrast the environments and identify any changes that would have occurred. The study also looks at the increases to the population of the island and the impact of growing numbers on Trinidad’s environment. The British capture of Trinidad and its impact is also analysed to deduce if any changes took place with the island’s environment in the five year period from 1797 to 1802 which was the end of Thomas Picton’s governance and the yar Trinidad was officially ceded to Britain by the Spanish. Keywords: Environmental History, Trinidad and Tobago, Cedula of Population, and Picton ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................ iii ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................................... i TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................................... ii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................................... iii LIST OF APPENDICES .................................................................................................................................... iv INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................................................. 9 CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................................................... 13 CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................................... 18 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................... 23 WORKS CITED .............................................................................................................................................. 24 APPENDIX .................................................................................................................................................... 27 iii LIST OF FIGURES 1. Figure 1 Map showing location of St Joseph, Trinidad 2. Figure 2 Table showing the estimated Population growth between 1782 and 1810 in Trinidad 3. Figure 3 Map from 1783 showing St. Ann's River and Port of Spain 4. Figure 4 Table Showing Breakdown and Composition Of Population In 1797 5. Figure 5 Map showing Trinidad in the late 18th century iv LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix 1……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………27 1 INTRODUCTION The geographical location of Trinidad situates it as an island located at the southernmost end of the Caribbean archipelago of islands, this means that it is also very close to the South American mainland. During the period of exploration in the late 15th century, Trinidad was re- discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1498 on behalf of the Spanish Crown, making Trinidad a Spanish colony. According to Bridget Brereton in An Introduction to the History of Trinidad and Tobago, the island was already settled by several groups she refers to as Amerindians who had an established way of life (Brereton 1996, p.2). Brereton (1996) notes though that the recorded history of the island did not occur until Columbus’ arrival. The Cedula was an official document from the King of Spain that consisted of twenty- eight articles to govern the island, while providing incentives for people to migrate to the island, settle and contribute to its economic development. Don Jose Maria Chacon was put as the governor of Trinidad to ensure the document was utilized as he was seen as a forward thinker “he was intelligent, well-educated and competent, and had brought many advancements to this colony” (Besson 2019). Under Chacon, Trinidad rapidly developed with the migration of French planters and African slaves to the islands where plantations were set up to make the island profitable. It is important to remember that prior to this development and use of land with the Cedula, Trinidad was virtually untapped land so much of the vegetation would have had to be cleared which would have negatively impacted the environment but been necessary for the economic development of the island. By 1797, the year the British captured Trinidad, the island was more developed than it had ever been. Under Thomas Picton and the commissioners of 2 Population the island was further developed as more land was distributed so that it could be developed. More immigration also resulted under the British. This is a study in environmental history. According to Oosthoek (2005) environmental history is a fairly new discipline under the realm of history, coming about in the 1960s and 1970s. The term was coined by Rodrick Nash and can be defined as the interaction between humans and the natural world. It involves the study of these interactions regarding the exploitation of the natural world by humans, how they impact the environment and how humans have been impacted by the environment. The Cedula of Population marks a significant point in the environmental history of Trinidad. It’s implementation not only impacted the island’s environment but also ushered important social, economic and political changes in Trinidad. 1. Rationale It is necessary to study the as there is a gap in the scholarship on the topic. Environmental history in itself is a fairly new branch of history and so examining the impact of the Cedula of Population through this lens may be able to develop the literature on this topic. 2. Thesis statement The Cedula of Population of 1783, from its enactment to the end of the rule of Sir Thomas Picton in Trinidad impacted the island of Trinidad, environmentally, socially, economically and politically. 3. Parameters The time frame of this thesis begins in 1783 and ends in 1802. It concentrates on the island of Trinidad with a focus on the environmental impact and the groups involved, namely, the 3 Spanish, French, enslaved Africans and British. The year 1802 is significant as it is the year the Thomas Picton, a former British governor of Trinidad, ended his tenure. This year is also significant as Spain officially ceded Trinidad to Britain with the Treaty of Amiens. The involvement of Picton in this discussion is necessary as he administered the colony using the Articles of Capitulation of 1797 which would have also impacted Trinidad, somewhat similarly to the Cedula of Population 1783. 4. Objectives The goals of this study are to compare the landscape of Trinidad prior to the Cedula and to examine how it looked after its instatement to ascertain if there was any real change. The study also seeks to help persons understand the impact between man and the environment in the late 18th century on the demography of Trinidad and to determine if the plantations were worth the damage/impact it caused in a time where environmental conservation and preservation was not even considered. The thesis ends by attempting to identify the difference in the physical geography/environment of Trinidad with British capture and rule for a five-year period. 5. Methodology In this qualitative study both primary and secondary sources are utilized in answering the objectives and explore environmental, social, economic and political history of Trinidad. Books, newspaper articles, journal articles, and some websites were used to gather information on Trinidad’s history, environmental history and for information to support the analysis of this piece. Books were the most useful source of information, particularly in providing background information on Trinidad in the late 18th and early 19th century. 4 6. Chapter Outline Chapter One analyses the literature that exists on topics akin to the thesis. Chapter Two examines the landscape of Trinidad, prior to the enactment of the Cedula. Chapter Three examines the interactions between man and the environment regarding the impact of the demography on the colony during the period of Spanish administration. It also seeks to examine if the large implementation of the plantation system worth the environmental impact it caused in Trinidad. The final chapter, Chapter Four looks at if there was further change to the physical environment of Trinidad with the capture of the island by the British and if there were improvements made to the island or not. 5 CHAPTER ONE LITERATURE REVIEW The purpose of this literature review is to identify and ascertain the literature that exists on the topic relating to this thesis. This includes the history of Trinidad, environmental history and the environment of Trinidad specifically. Reviewing the existing literature will be of assistance in identifying the gaps on the topic and by providing context of the time period and country being discussed. Eric Williams in The History of the Peoples of Trinidad and Tobago posits that Trinidad was generally left alone until the 18th century (Williams 1962, 11). In this book he chronicles the history of the island starting with the Amerindians in Chapter one, moves on to the Spanish occupation, French governance of the Spanish territory and more which is relevant to this thesis. He speaks to the Spanish arriving in Trinidad in chapter two and why they were equipped to do so, in chapter three though he goes on to explain Spanish colonialism in Trinidad, what happened under them and why Trinidad ultimately was lost to Britain in 1797. As an economic historian, he asserts the main reason to be the Spanish going bankrupt and unable to fund and therefore adequately protect its colonies like Trinidad. This text was useful for providing a general background on Trinidad and the European powers existence and role in Trinidad. According to Besson and Brereton in The Book of Trinidad the population increased from under 3, 000 to 10, 422. In this book, aspects of the environment in Trinidad are mentioned and can be used in comparing the landscape before European interference and how it changed after the introduction and growth of the plantation system. There is also a chapter on former Governor of Trinidad Don Jose Maria Chacon, and the events surrounding his tenure as governor during the 6 period of British Capture. This book also mentions the articles of the Cedula but fails to analyse the impact these articles had on Trinidad. Vinita Damodaran in her work entitled Environmental History looks at the histories of environmental change in the tropics of the British empire with her argument being that concern for the environment is not a modern day ideology, rather, one that began in the 17th and 18th centuries by individuals from Western Europe (not plantation owners) who witnessed the damage done to the environment. While this article does not focus specifically on Trinidad, it does speak to the Caribbean and the effects of the European activities on the islands such as soil erosion, flooding and other ecological problems. Damodaran does note however that legislation was put in place in the Caribbean as early as the 17th century to protect forests, showing forethought and concern in protecting the environment. Furthermore, Bridget Brereton in History of Modern Trinidad 1783-1962 examines Trinidad's political, economic, and social development from its time as a Spanish colony to the point at which it became an independent country. It discusses the elements that affected the Colony's development and looks into the politics of the island, even paying attention to Trinidad’s time as a Spanish colony being effectively ruled by the French who were the wealthiest. The book also looks at Trinidad’s foundations as a slave society with the Cedula of 1783 which brought labour into the island. Carl Campbell in Rise of the Free Coloured Plantocracy focuses on the importance of free coloured persons as land owners in the British West Indies namely Trinidad. He notes that they made a significant contribution to the development of the island and that this did not take place in any other Caribbean island to such an extent. Campbell also analyses the 1783 Cedula of 7 population in Trinidad in this article to show the land distribution that took place, with some even being given to the free coloureds, though it was less than what the whites received. The Story of Trinidad to 1797 was a book written by Douglas Archibald in which he generally examines the history of Trinidad until the point of British capture and the immediate effects after the incursion. Archibald speaks of the landscape somewhat in his book and how it remained virtually untouched until the Cedula. He does not however mention any changes to it with the coming of the British rather tells the story of what took place like most authors who write on the period do. Anthony Penna in his book review of Hurricanes and Society in the British Greater Caribbean 1624-1783 by Matthew Mulachy speaks of climate change being investigated by environmental historians. While this book review’s focus ends in the year the Cedula was enacted (1783) in its discussion of the British Caribbean, it noted that environmental factors would have impacted the British plantation system whether it would have remained functioning either productively or not. According to Penna, Mulachy posited that Europeans came with a mindset to tame the ‘wild’ environment like they would have with the indigenous people they encountered. Alfred Crosby in The Past and Present of Environmental History focuses on environmental history in the United States of America. Not much scholarship exists on environmental history in the Caribbean nor Trinidad but Crosby postulates that historians in general were slow to the consideration of environmental matters as part of the historical discourse. He noted that previously persons such as geographers would focus more on these topics such as European exploitation of the colonies in the tropics regarding matters such as deforestation which was prevalent in the New World. 8 Phillip Morgan in The Caribbean Environment to 1850 using the four elements earth, fire, water, and wind mentions in a general description of the early environment in the Caribbean. It accounts for the groups within the Caribbean including the indigenous persons, Europeans and Africans. The work spans several centuries, taking into consideration landscapes and seascapes along with people and animals and the impacts caused to the environment in the region. Trinidad is discussed with an environmental scope in this book looking at the land, soil, flora, fauna and other elements of biodiversity along with the impact settlers had on the island. In summary, the literature review was able to examine a variety of sources relevant to the history of Trinidad, including the island's environment and the changes to it over time. It looked at a multitude of texts that covered topics such as Trinidad's colonial past, the impact of European powers on the island's environment and the role played by the different racial groups on the island. One source highlighted the effects of climate change on the British Caribbean. Overall, the review helped identify gaps in the existing literature, providing a framework for future research on this topic. 9 CHAPTER TWO This chapter looks at the environment, more specifically the landscape of Trinidad prior to the enactment of the Cedula of Population in 1783. It begins by looking at Trinidad prior to Europeans arriving in the region and any changes that came to landscape before to them. The chapter then proceeds in a chronological order by discussing Trinidad’s environment with European presence and their impacts to it throughout the centuries until 1783. Before the advent of European colonisation in the Caribbean, there were changes to the landscape regarding the Trinidad’s natural vegetation with the indigenous people. The “Amerindians used fire to modify their environment and did so almost from the moment they arrived in the Caribbean” (Morgan 2022, 79). In Trinidad, evidence of the use of fire anthropogenically was found in the Oropouche Lagoon area where indigenous persons from the Ceramic Age (100 BCE) made “extensive landscape modifications” using it to either make hunting easier or practice horticulture (Morgan 2022, 79). Indigenous people used elements of their natural surroundings to also construct shelter, make tools and used it for daily life but did so in a sustainable manner unlike the Europeans. The indigenous people also practicing nature worship may have also been a contributing factor to their respect for nature and less damaging impact on Trinidad’s environment when compared to Europeans (Drissi 2020). Authors of Caribbean history speak of Trinidad being lush and forested with much biodiversity until the Cedula of Population, 1783 (Campbell 1980, 33; Archibald 2010, 5). According to Bayette, colonization had a direct physical impact on the environment in the Caribbean, with colonial powers having exploited natural resources “for their own gain without any regard” which would have had both long and short term impacts on the environment (2021, 10 8). Prior to European contact the indigenous people utilized the plentiful natural resources of the land, forests, and seas in an optimal manner (Brereton 1981, 1). While Trinidad was claimed for the Spanish in 1498, changes began taking place to the environment as early as 1592 when De Berrio cleared land in St. Joseph to construct buildings he though a town would need (Brereton 1981, 2). These included a Church which would be of paramount importance to Catholic Spain, a prison, a building where the town council also known as the cabildo could meet and the governor’s house (Brereton 1981, 2). Trinidad was an island in the Caribbean that was underpopulated and underutilized for almost three centuries. It remained largely neglected until 1592 where little development was able to take place under Spanish soldier Antonio de Berrio. He established the first permanent town in Trinidad called San José de Oruna or St. Joseph after conflicts with the indigenous peoples who resided on the island originally (Brereton 1996, 7). This town would later become the capital of Trinidad. Real development did not occur in Trinidad until the year 1783 with the enactment of the Cedula of Population which saw rapid growth and progression regarding economic, social and infrastructural environment. Europeans were more focused on islands with gold, silver and other precious metals which Trinidad did not possess in large quantities. Regarding the topography in Trinidad before 1783, there was little change as only small clearings were made in the forests on the island with them being located on the Western part nearest to the capital which can be seen in Figure 1 below, denoted by the red circle on this French map from 1780. According to Borde, the Spanish settlers in Trinidad did not occupy anywhere except “the town and its surroundings within a radius of less than a mile” (1982, 16). Large parcels of land were not cleared prior to the Cedula of population in the late 16th century, rather the small group who resided on the island grew cocoa and tobacco on a small scale for export with most of 11 the cultivation they did being focused on crops for subsistence (Brereton 181, 2). The majority of the island remained covered by untouched forest lands and was inhabited by the indigenous peoples who were not yet subjugated by the Spanish (Borde 1982, 16). Figure 1 Map showing location of St Joseph, Trinidad. Source: (Luscombe 2012) The seventeenth century in Trinidad saw some changes to the landscape as small tobacco plantations began to develop, with the exports being profitable to the island’s almost non-existent economy at the time. Cocoa also began to be cultivated as a crop for export by the Spanish, with it, starting the monocrop culture that would come to be characteristic of islands in the Caribbean region. Other crops were grown on the island including sugar, coffee, cotton, maize and other provisions (Brereton 1981, 3). This showed the foundations of an agriculturally diverse economy in Trinidad which would have meant deforestation would have been taking place as land was 12 needed for even the small plantations. Brereton notes as well that with the crops such as tobacco and cocoa were exported to English and Dutch colonies via ships (1981, 2). This meant that in addition to deforestation to clear land, there may have also been some level of port construction using timber from felled trees as a jetty would have been required to load the crops on to the ships. Just seven years before the implementation of the Cedula of population of 1783, there was a regulation of repopulation issued by the King of Spain in 1776 to encourage persons to come to Trinidad and settle (Borde 1982, 158). The incentive for this was to grant them free lands with the only condition for settling and receiving said land would be that they were Roman Catholic. This was after the environment was devastated by the parasol ant that brought plantations to the brink of destruction with roots being unable to get adequate nutrients from the soil (Borde 1982, 157). In May 1777, French planter, Roume de St. Laurent visited Trinidad to study its topography and the natural resources it possessed, noting the island had rich soils and fertile plains (Borde 1982, 161). This visit by St. Laurent would have been one of the driving forces that would lead to the Cedula of 1783 leading to environmental impacts by various factors. In summation, changes to the landscape of Trinidad did take place before the Cedula of Population in 1783. This is noted as the indigenous people made changes to the environment in Oropouche for example. Europeans exploited natural resources and developed infrastructure disrupting the vegetation with changes to the topography also being made as land was cleared to make way for tobacco and cocoa plantations among others. 13 CHAPTER THREE This chapter studies the interactions between man and the environment focusing also on the changes to the demography of the colony during the period of Spanish administration. It begins by discussing the Cedula of Population 1783 and the changes it brought to the population of Trinidad that was fairly low until the Cedula was enacted. Persons came after incentivization was given by the document in the form of land grants and tariff breaks. This resulted in changes to the landscape and economic development, making the island more profitable and attractive for settlement. The Cedula or decree of population was a document that was focused on immigration to increase the population of Trinidad and foster economic development (Campbell 1980, 34). When it was enacted in 1783, it became the catalyst for not only development but also changes to the physical environment and demography. The original inhabitants of Trinidad were the indigenous people with groups that would have come into contact with the Europeans being the Taino and Kalinago upon Columbus’ arrival. Trinidad’s population by 1783 was estimated in the West Indian Census (1946) to be 2763 (Augelli and Taylor 1960, 124) or 2813 (Fraser 1896). Figure 2 below shows the estimated breakdown of the population by race with the indigenous peoples compromising the majority of the island’s population and the whites with the minority in 1782, just one year before the Cedula. It can be realized as well that the Cedula had a significant impact and was successful in growing Trinidad’s population as by 1789, the numbers of whites, coloured persons and enslaved persons grew exponentially. This would have had substantial impacts to the environment of the island as deforestation for instance would have begun to occur on a large scale as land would be required to establish settlements, timber would be needed for construction and food would need to be grown. 14 Figure 2 Table showing the estimated Population growth between 1782 and 1810 in Trinidad While there were increases to the general Trinidadian population, the types of persons that came to settle also varied. Though Trinidad was a Spanish colony, Spanish Europeans did not make up the majority of the white population, rather the French did. With the Cedula, persons with the financial means, those who came from a nation that was amicable with Spain and Catholic individuals were incentivized to come to island by land grants. From 1783 to 1797, “about 42 090 quarries of land were distributed to 596 persons” (Campbell 1980, 37). The governor that was put in place in Trinidad at the time of the Cedula was Don Jose Maria Chacon and he was responsible for distributing lands across the island and encouraging settlement. Chacon did this successfully as areas such as South Naparima, Maracas, Diego Martin, Couva, Carenage, Arouca and Savonetta became populated and with that would come economic activity (Campbell 1980, 37). The island of Trinidad that was described in its earlier years for having lush forests would have then had changes to its landscape as more and more land would be cleared for the increasing population. In addition, clearing the land would have the biodiversity of the island, impacting the environment. The extraction of natural resources from the island would also increase with population growth and the result of persons living in any place would be pollution (University of 15 California Museum of Paleontology 2023). It is important to remember that as Trinidad was basically a new territory, there wasn’t any infrastructure to deal with sewage or waste water from settlements so these would usually run off into rivers contaminating the main source of fresh water and disturbing marine life. Besson notes that Chacon would have “diverted the course of the St. Ann’s River from its course” to make land available for Port of Spain to expand to the West which would have impacted the environment (Besson 2010, 67). Port of Spain or Puerto de España became the new capital of Trinidad but there was one main problem, that was the river ran through the capital and caused flooding during the rainy season (Bissessarsingh 2013). In Figure 3 below, the yellow circle indicates the new capital of Port of Spain with the red line being the St. Ann’s river. According to Flatley, Rutherfurd and Hardle “Relocated channels present a consistent set of physical and ecological challenges, often related to accelerated erosion and deposition…vegetation loss, water quality issues” (2018, 1). Figure 3 Map from 1783 showing St. Ann's River and Port of Spain Port of Spain 16 As the population of Trinidad increased, the landscape changed and economic development ensued, the island became a plantation economy (Augelli and Taylor 1960, 124; Brereton 2007, 171). This was able to occur with African slaves being brought to the Caribbean by the French planters who came. Sugar became a cash crop to those who resided in Trinidad as the virgin soil was nutrient rich and available in large quantities due to the size of the island. The French settlers transformed the “deserted” island into one that was prosperous as they “carved out of the ‘wilderness’” their homes and estates (Brereton 2007, 172). In addition to sugar, coffee, cocoa, cotton and indigo were exported from Trinidad, making the island more profitable (Borde 1982, 235). Borde notes as well that in addition to exports increasing, the internal economy of Trinidad was flourishing from the trade between the different groups in the island, that is, the French and Spanish (1982, 235). “All the industries and professions and trades prospered, and the well-being of the colony was general” meaning the Cedula was working successfully with the period after 1783 being referred to as the “Golden Age of Trinidad” (Borde 1982, 235). Therefore, it can be said that the evolution of Trinidad into a plantation economy was worth the environmental impact thought there were social consequences like Trinidad becoming an economy built on African slave labour. The Trinidadian plantation became very important to the Spanish colonial power at the time because of its profitability even though many of them were owned by the French. Though much investments were required in preparing the land for cultivation, the rewards were quick to come in the time where sugar production was not as high of a quality in the older territories. During this time period as well where environmental preservation and conservation was not something thought about by the colonists, there were still some things they did that were sustainable. On sugarcane estates, the wasted elements of it that came out of the manufacturing process would be 17 used as fertilizer on the fields. This was one way the environment would have been positively impacted but the negatives do far outweigh them. Henceforth, this chapter discussed how the cedula was able to diversify and increase the population of the whites, coloureds, enslaved and indigenous persons in Trinidad after 1783. The population increase would have impacted the environment as more resources were used to meet the demands of the growing numbers of persons on the island. The St. Ann’s River for example was rerouted to accommodate the growing capital of Port of Spain. 18 CHAPTER FOUR Chapter four will examine if there was any more change made to the physical environment of Trinidad after it was captured by the British and if there were any developments made to the island or not after 1797. It will mention how the island was taken, the population increases that would come with the British and the few land changes that would take place under Thomas Picton. A map will also be discussed to show the landscape of the island and why villages and development took place where it did. Trinidad was a Spanish colony for almost three hundred years and faced the challenges of a slow economy, underpopulation, underdeveloped land, infrastructure, poor defences, lack of government and a heterogeneous society that made it more difficult to have and maintain control than in other colonies until 1783. Developments that came after the Cedula of 1783 improved some of the aforementioned challenges but one remained that would lead to Spain losing Trinidad as her territory to Britain in 1797. While the island’s population grew in size and developed economically, there were shortcoming in military defence which made it easier to capture. The Articles of Capitulation were hastily constructed by Sir Ralph Abercromby, Henry Harvey and Don Jose Maria Chacon with articles that would be used to govern Trinidad as a British territory where Spanish law governed and the French held the real power in the island. The population of Trinidad at the time of British capture was estimated to be 17 718 with a breakdown seen in Figure 4 below and would have grown by over ten thousand up to 1802 which is the end of this study and end of the leadership of Thomas Picton, Governor of Trinidad. Under picton, some changes took place with the physical environment. Land distrubution slowed under the British with Picton only giving seven persons land (Campbell 1980, 46). The plantation system 19 though did not falter as exports of sugar, coffee, rum and cotton generally increased from 1799- 1801 with some fluctuations between the years (refer to appendix image 2 for details). The sugar economy grew when the British took over Trinidad as “many planters and merchants from Britain or from the British West Indies either came to live here or invested their money here by buying plantations or businesses” (Brereton 1996, 20). Impacts to the environment were inevitable with this occurrence. More persons coming to the island would mean more pressure being put on the natural resources.Brereton noted that to grow more sugarcane, plantation owners had their enslaved clear the forests (1996, 21). Figure 4 Table Showing Breakdown and Composition Of Population In 1797 Sugarcane being grown at such a large scale posed problems to the island for a number of reasons. One being that sugar did not originiate in the tropics so areas that grew it were cleared of forests which was something that Brereton noted changed the environment, meaning deforestation was prevalent. Deforestation would mean the destruction of animal habitats of which Trinidad was 20 widely versed in. It would also mean the soil would be bare for a period of time and be more susceptible to soil erosion and thereby soil degredation. Dr Arajuao, a brazilian botanist speaks to the facts that growing sugar cane leads to damaging of the land, nutrients being stripped from the soil and harm to microorganisms when planters practiced slash and burn to clear the cane fields after harvest (Pavid 2021). Flooding is also noted as a problem colonists would have faced in the tropics (Pavid 2021). Without trees to absorb water from rainfall which would come every year for some months in the Caribbean, flooding was bound to occur. To combat this planters would have to further disturb the land by digging drains and establishing infrastructure to handle runoff water. Figure 5 Map showing Trinidad in the late 18th century Figure 5 above displays a map published in 1800 based on surveys done in Trinidad in 1797, the year of British Capture with some noteworthy elements. The Northern Range of Mountains for instance is demarcated as being “covered in general with incorruptible woods” this 21 may have meant that neither the Spanish nor the British were able to make any inroads into that part of Trinidad, leaving the environment generally undisturbed. The centre of the island was referred to as the interior part that was “covered with impenetrable wood”. It can therefore be deduced that this area while mapped, was left untouched by the European colonists for reasons which may include, lack of funding to develop infrastructure to move deeper into the island. With this map one can see most of the named places were either along the coasts or the main road that ran from north to south and west to east. The map also shows navigable river channels and foot paths. The river channels being navigable would have been useful for transporting the crops cultivated to Port of Spain, the main port for exportation. There were some places too where missions were marked such as the Mission of Montseratt or Mission of Savana Grande. Impacts to the environment would be made here as churched would have been constructed where the missions set up and settlemetns would as well. From the readings on the topic it can be said that other than contributing to the growth of the plantation economy, no real changes or improvents were made in Trinidad by the British up to 1802. This may have been because Trinidad did not officially become a British colony until 1802 with the Treaty of Amiens when Spain ceded the island to Britain. Trinidad became a crown colony meaning governmental representation was not afforded to those on the island, rather the island was governed directly by the crown with a governor to carryout the procedures and maintain Trinidad generally. There was a reaon for instituting Crown Colony government in Trinidad and that was because, as previously mentioned, French planters and their slaves comprised the majority of the population, so as to maintain British power, represntative government was withheld (Luscombe 2012). There may also have been little changes to the environment as most of the development that could take place at the time had already occurred under the Spanish as a result of the Cedula 22 of Population 1783. The last Spanish governor Chacon, did much to develop the island so that when Thomas Picton came in to govern using the Articles of Capitulation in 1797 for the British, not much was done other than the establishment of more plantations. 23 CONCLUSION In closing, it can be said that the 1783 Cedula of population did have environmental impacts on Trinidad. With the comparison of Trinidad at different stages such as before the coming of the Europeans, the island under the Spanish and later under the British, one can identify changes to the environment between 1783 and 1802 which is the time period in focus. The environment was impacted in a number of ways which included deforestation, water pollution, depletion of natural resources, destruction of flora and fauna, destruction of animal habitats, soil exhaustion and changes to the topography particularly along the coast of the island. Deductions can be made as well regarding demographics and the changes it underwent between the aforementioned time period. While there were changes to the environment, it allowed for the population of the island to grow, economy to develop and become profitable to the European powers of Spain and Britain. The implementation and popularity of the plantation would also come to Trinidad under the Spanish and expand slightly under the British, but the Cedula of Population was the ultimate driving factor for the population increase to the island. This would mean that one of the aims of the document was achieved with its enactment. From an economic standpoint, the plantation economy that was developing was positive but the damages it caused to the environment were not ideal and efforts to treat it non-destructively were not typically considered. With British capture in 1797 to the end of Thomas Picton’s stent as Governor of Trinidad, British persons came to the island and set up more plantations which would have had the same environmental impacts that occurred with the Cedula. Little changes were made to the island in the five-year period the British held Trinidad within the framework of the study as a steady and formal method of governance was not yet established. 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Pemberton, Rita, Debbie Mccollin, Gelien Matthews, and Michael Toussaint. 2018. Historical Dictionary of Trinidad and Tobago. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. University of California Museum of Paleontology. 2023. “Population Growth.” Understanding Global Change. 2023. https://ugc.berkeley.edu/background-content/population-growth/. Williams, Eric. 1962. History of the People of Trindad and Tobago. Port-Of-Spain: P.N.M. Pub. https://archive.org/details/historyofthepeop006593mbp/page/n46/mode/1up?view=theater . 27 APPENDIX 28 29