The University of the West Indies St. Augustine Campus Faculty of Humanities and Education Caribbean Studies Project HUMN 3099 Student name: SABRINA LINGO Student ID no.: 816010043 Degree Program: B.A. FRENCH, SPANISH Supervisor: DR. RENEE FIGUERA Title of Thesis: “Language Learning in the Community Context: The Acquisition of Spanish Among Trinidadian Workers in the Food and Restaurant Industry.” Declaration 1. I declare that this thesis has been composed solely by myself and that it has not been submitted, in whole or in part, in any previous application for a degree. Except where stated otherwise by reference or acknowledgment, the work presented is entirely my own. 2. I authorise The University of the West Indies to make a physical or digital copy of my thesis/research paper/project report for its preservation, for public reference, and for the purpose of inter-library loan. 3. I consent to have my attached thesis used in any publication comprising Caribbean Studies Projects by The University of the West Indies. I understand that I will receive no compensation. I hereby assign publishing rights for the contribution to The University of the West Indies, including all copyrights. Signature of Student: SABRINA LINGO Date: 16/04/21 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES The Office of the Board for Undergraduate Studies INDIVIDUAL PLAGIARISM DECLARATION This declaration is being made in accordance with the University Regulations on Plagiarism (First Degrees, Diplomas and Certificate) and should be attached to all work submitted by a student to be assessed as part of or/the entire requirement of the course, other than work submitted in an invigilated examination. Statement 1. I have read the Plagiarism Regulations as set out in the Faculty Handbook and University websites related to the submission of coursework for assessment. 2. I declare that I understand that plagiarism is the use of another’s work pretending that it is one’s own and that it is a serious academic offence for which the University may impose severe penalties. 3. I declare that the submitted work indicated below is my own work, except where duly acknowledged and referenced. 4. I also declare that this paper has not been previously submitted for credit either in its entirety or in part within the UWI or elsewhere. 5. I understand that I may be required to submit the work in electronic form and accept that the University may check the originality of the work using a computer-based plagiarism detection service. TITLE OF ASSIGNMENT – “Language Learning in the Community Context: The Acquisition of Spanish Among Trinidadian Workers in the Food and Restaurant Industry.” COURSE CODE – HUMN 3099 COURSE TITLE - CARIBBEAN STUDIES PROJECT STUDENT ID - 816010043 By signing this declaration, you are confirming that the work you are submitting is original and does not contain any plagiarised material. I confirm that this assignment is my own work, and that the work of other persons has been fully acknowledged. ii SIGNATURE – SABRINA LINGO DATE – 16/04/21 Acknowledgements The researcher would like to thank Dr Renee Figuera for extensive guidance and support that facilitated the successful completion of this project. Moreover, the researcher appreciates the invaluable participation of all subjects, as well as the owners of these establishments, for facilitating this research. i Abstract Recent waves of Venezuelan migration have revitalised the importance of Spanish and provided an opportunity for the linguistic transformation of Trinidadian society. While most studies of second language acquisition in immigration contexts examine dominant Second Language (L2) macro-contexts, few evaluate the minority L2 context, whereby members of the host community acquire immigrant languages. Hence, this study has been designed to investigate the acquisition of Spanish by Trinidadian employees in the food industry in order to respond to this research gap. Through a multiple case study consisting of observation, interviews, questionnaires and elicitation of the four main cases, and a deductive thematic analysis approach facilitated by coding of Schumann’s acculturation factors, and pragmatic contexts, it is noted that Trinidadians’ acquisition of Spanish is limited to basic phrases and structures relating to social interactions and job tasks, due to incidental input which is task based and functional in the workplace context. This therefore suggests that the minority L2 context can promote acquisition, but this is limited by acculturation and pragmatic factors rather than individual psychological factors. Therefore, this study elucidates the elements of Spanish which are important for the food industry and the factors which impact acquisition in this setting. Keywords: Second language acquisition, minority L2 context, social dominance, acculturation, pragmatic factors, Venezuelan immigration, community language learning, Trinidad ii Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………...........................................................i Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………………...ii List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………1 List of Appendices…………………………………………………………………………….3 Glossary……………………………………………………………………………………….4 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………5 Rationale………………………………………………………………………………………...6 Hypothesis……………………………………………………………………………………….7 Objectives……………………………………………………………………………………….7 Parameters………………………………………………………………………………………7 Methodology…………………………………………………………………………………….8 Research Design……………………………………………………………………………….8 Sampling Method………………………………………………………………………………9 Participants…………………………………………………………………………………….9 Procedures…………………………………………………………………………………....12 Data Analysis………………………………………………………………………………….13 Chapter Outline………………………………………………………………………………14 ii Ethical Considerations ……………………………………………………………………...14 Chapter One: Literature Review……………………………………………………………...16 Input Hypothesis……………………………………………………………………………....16 Acculturation Theory…………………………………………………………………………17 Sociocultural Theory………………………………………………………………………....20 Community Language Learning Theory…………………………………………………...21 Role of Pragmatics……………………………………………………………………….......22 Role of Pragmatics: The Workplace Setting……………………………………………...24 Learning Language in the Community Context…………………………………………...25 Chapter Two: Results………………………………………………………………………...27 Spanish Language Use in the Food Industry………………………………………………27 Results of the Discourse Completion Test.....................................................................30 Communicative Competence as Content.......................................................................32 Chapter Three: Discussion…………………………………………………………………...34 Pragmatic Contexts……………………………………………………………………...…...34 Pragmatic Factors: Contexts of Use……………………………………………………….34 Pragmatic Factors: Inconsistent True Peers……………………………………………...37 Sociocultural Factors …………………………………………………………………….38 Sociocultural Factors: Social Dominance……………………...................................38 ii Sociocultural Factors: Size………………………………….…………….........................38 Sociocultural Factors: Enclosure………………………………………………...........39 Sociocultural Factors: Intended Length of Stay …………………………………………40 Sociocultural Factors: Cultural Congruence and Attitudes to Learning Spanish……40 Individual Factors…………………………………………………………………………….42 Individual Factors: Low Intrinsic Motivation…………………………………………….42 Individual Factors: Language Shock and Anxiety……………………………………….42 Individual Factors: Learner Beliefs ……………………………………………………….42 Individual Factors: Learning Styles…………………………….....................................44 Individual Factors: Gender………………………………………………………………….44 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………46 Limitations…………………………………………………………………………………….46 Recommendations…………………………………………………………………….47 Works Cited.………………………………………………………………………………….48 Appendix 1…………………………………………………………………………………...55 Appendix 2…………………………………………………………………………………...58 Appendix 3…………………………………………………………………………………...61 Appendix 4…………………………………………………………………………………...64 Appendix 5…………………………………………………………………………………...67 iv Appendix 6…………………………………………………………………………………...70 Appendix 7…………………………………………………………………………………...73 Appendix 8…………………………………………………………………………………...76 Appendix 9…………………………………………………………………………………..78 Lingo 1 List of Figures Figure Title Page 1. Figure 1 Showing the Interaction Between English Proficiency Levels of Subjects, Spanish Proficiency of Interlocutors and Job Functions 12 2. Figure 2 Showing Communicative Situations (as Content) In Which Trinidadian Interlocutors Used Spanish 33 3. Figure 3 Showing Communicative Situations (As Content) in Which Venezuelan Peers Used Spanish 36 4. Figure 4 Showing Levels of Enclosure of Trinidadian Workers Defined by Contact with Venezuelans Outside of the Workplace 39 5. Figure 5 Showing Length of Time During Which Participants Have Worked Together 40 Table Title Page 1. Table 1 Showing Spanish-speaking Subjects, Interlocutors and 10 Pragmatic Contexts 2. Table 2 Showing Elements of Spanish Used and the Linguistic 27 Functions of These Elements in a Typical Setting in the Food Industry, a Green Grocer. 3. Table 3 Showing Communicative Situations and Trinidadian 30 Interlocutors Who Responded Appropriately Lingo 2 4. Table 4 Showing Venezuelan Participants’ Reasons for Their Limited Use 35 of Spanish in the Workplace 5. Table 5 Showing Trinidadian Interlocutors’ Reasons for Their Limited Use 41 of Spanish in the Workplace 6. Table 6 Showing Methods of Foreign Language Learning Which Trinidadian 43 Participants Consider Effective 7. Table 7 Showing Learning Styles of Trinidadian Participants 44 Lingo 3 List of Appendices Appendix Title Page 1. Informed Consent Form for Pilot Stage (English) 55 2. Informed Consent Form for Pilot Stage (Spanish) 58 3. Informed Consent Form for Observation, Interviews and 61 Elicitation Phases (English) 4. Informed Consent Form for Observation, Interviews and 64 Elicitation Phases (Spanish) 5. Interview Questions for Trinidadians 67 6. Interview Questions for Venezuelans 70 7. Discourse Completion Test for Trinidadians 73 8. Discourse Completion Test for Venezuelans 76 9. Questionnaire on Motivation, Learner Beliefs, Learning Styles, Anxiety 78 and Language Shock Lingo 4 Glossary SLA- Second Language Acquisition TL- Target language L2- Second language 2LL- Second language learners SAFFL- Spanish as the First Foreign Language SIS- Spanish Implementation Secretariat CEFR- Common European Framework of Reference for Languages DCT- Discourse Completion Test Lingo 5 Introduction Located eleven kilometres away from Venezuela, the Spanish language has grown in importance in the Anglophone island of Trinidad. In spite of this geographical proximity and formal attempts by the government to promote Spanish as the First Foreign Language (SAFFL) through the Spanish Implementation Secretariat (SIS), Trinidadians have not adopted a positive attitude towards Spanish (Sudarsan 3). Moreover, proficiency in Spanish is not widespread. In 2005, approximately 1,500 citizens could be considered Spanish-speakers (Williams). This figure has not been updated. However, recent waves of Venezuelan immigration have revitalised the relevance of Spanish. According to a United Nations report, in 2019 there were approximately 40,000 to 60,000 Venezuelan immigrants present in Trinidad and Tobago. This phenomenon has the potential to bring about linguistic transformation to Trinidadian society. Furthermore, interaction with native Spanish speakers can promote acquisition of Spanish among Trinidadians as a Second Language (L2). The 2019 Venezuelan Migrant Registration Process has allowed migrants to work legally in Trinidad and Tobago for one year. As a result, interaction between Venezuelan migrants and Trinidadians in a work context has been afforded. This interaction is particularly common in the food and restaurant industry. However, little research exists which explores the linguistic impact of recent Venezuelan immigration on the acquisition of Spanish by Trinidadians. Moreover, most research in the field of the L2 acquisition of Spanish in Trinidad and Tobago focuses on the formal classroom setting, with an emphasis on an evaluation of the efficacy of Spanish programmes at the secondary school level. Ali and Churaman, for example, have investigated motivational factors of Spanish students at the secondary school level and Lingo 6 the challenges encountered by these students1. Consequently, there is a need for the examination of L2 acquisition of Spanish in Trinidad and Tobago in the informal community context given the increasing presence of native speakers. Additionally, the proximity of native speakers as a tool for the promotion of second language acquisition (SLA) is paramount. This prospect is likely to emerge in the findings of this study. Rationale The rationale for this study is rooted in the absence of data on the linguistic impact of recent Venezuelan immigration in Trinidad and Tobago. Moreover, the researcher has noted that while numerous studies have evaluated L2 acquisition of a host country’s official language by immigrants, such as Casarez’s study2 and Adamuti-Trache’s study3, there is insufficient research on the impact of immigrants on the acquisition of the immigrants’ language in the host country. Hence, a study of the impact of Trinidadians’ interaction with Venezuelan immigrants on their acquisition of Spanish would not only enrich the field of research on the impact of recent Venezuelan immigration in Trinidad and Tobago, but it will also respond to a research gap regarding the members of the host community acquiring Spanish as a result of the influx of migrants. The study will also shed light on the elements of Spanish language which are important for the food industry and the factors which impact learning Spanish in this setting. 1 Churaman, Kurlene. “Investigating the Challenges Students Encounter in Studying the Spanish Language. A Case Study on a Named Secondary School in Trinidad and Tobago.” University of the West Indies , University of the West Indies , 2018, pp. 1–38. 2 Casarez, Nora. “Factors Influencing the English Language Acquisition and Academic Achievement of Hispanic Immigrant High School Students.” Walden University, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2014, pp. 1–139. 3 Adamuti-Trache, Maria. “Language Acquisition Among Adult Immigrants in Canada: The Effect of Premigration Language Capital.” Adult Education Quarterly., vol. 63, no. 2, 2013, pp. 103–126., doi:10.1177/0741713612442804. Lingo 7 Hypothesis Within the context of Trinidad and Tobago, it can be argued that exposure to native Spanish speakers in the workplace is impacted by a number of variables and linguistic factors. Hence, this study proposes to examine the following objectives: Objectives ● To identify which elements of Spanish language restaurant and food industry workers in Trinidad are acquiring in work related settings ● To identify the factors which contribute to their acquisition or non-acquisition of these elements This study therefore does not seek to account for all Spanish known by Trinidadian workers in the food industry, but rather aims to elucidate the elements of Spanish that may have been used and acquired in this work context. Parameters This study will focus on Trinidad, as this island receives a larger number of Venezuelan immigrants in comparison to Tobago. Dietrich Jones affirms that Trinidad is closer to Venezuela than it is to Tobago and as such, the migration connection between Trinidad and Venezuela is stronger (492). Moreover, this study is limited to the restaurant and food industry as this sector employs a large number of Venezuelan immigrants. Venezuelan migrants have caused a 4% increase in the labour market, positively impacting the food industry (Oxford Business Group).4 Furthermore, this study focuses on employees of a casual dining restaurant, a bar, a supermarket and a convenience store located in Port of Spain, San Fernando, 4 Oxford Business Group. “Influx of Refugees Spark National Debate in Trinidad and Tobago.” Oxford Business Group, Oxford Business Group, 6 Dec. 2020, oxfordbusinessgroup.com/analysis/deep-impact-pubic- officials-and-stakeholders-evaluate-advantages-and-concerns-regarding-large-influx. Lingo 8 Chaguraramas and Diego Martin in order to provide a sample of the interactions of Venezuelan immigrants with Trinidadians within the entire food industry. This study was conducted in February 2021 within the time frame of a month in order to facilitate a phased ethnographic methodological approach, with each phase lasting one week. Methodology The general methodology for this study reflects an ethnographic approach, whereby an interpretive analysis of the communicative actions of the population of study in relation to the social context (the workplace and the host country) was conducted. Ethnography involves field work through extended observation and engagement with participants. Heigham and Sakui refer to this as “deep hanging out” involving participant observation, interviews and artefact analysis (92). Research Design The research design follows a case study, defined by Duff and Anderson as a qualitative approach involving the characterisation of individual entities within a particular context, to understand their experiences, features and behaviours (112). More specifically, it mirrors a collective or multiple case study, which penetrates a single issue, through multiple cases to assist the work of theorising about an issue (Hood 70). In this case, the researcher undertakes four cases in the restaurant and food industry, whereby Trinidadian interlocutors communicate frequently with Venezuelan migrants. Consequently, the study will elucidate the extent to which Spanish is being used and acquired in these contexts and the factors which affect its use in the social context of work in the food industry in Trinidad. Lingo 9 Sampling Method Due to the specific subset of the population being investigated, the general sampling method involved a non-probability sampling technique. Several restaurants and food establishments located in the North, West and South of Trinidad were contacted to obtain information on their employees. Through purposive sampling, establishments employing both Venezuelan migrants and Trinidadians were selected. Four establishments were then selected according to the level of English of Venezuelan employees, the level of Spanish of Trinidadian interlocutors, their occupations and the quantity of the Spanish interaction, to account for multiple scenarios existing within the food industry. One additional establishment, a green grocer, was selected as a pilot study due to its potential for providing naturalistic data on cultural and social interactions between groups. The language from the pilot provided a good gauge of stock phrases to be learnt where the Venezuelan migrant and the Trinidadian interlocutor were true beginners with an equal lack of exposure to their respective L2 (either Spanish or English). Participants In Trinidad, despite formal policy to promote Spanish language learning, such as the primary and secondary school curricula, only 4000 Trinidadians have native level proficiency in Spanish, and 66,401 have limited competence (García Montero 9). Hence, Trinidadians are generally low functioning in Spanish. In spite of this, one to one interactions with native speakers are likely to boost competence in Spanish. Table 1 illustrates the Spanish–speaking subjects, their interlocutors, the pragmatic contexts and the corresponding communication functions as reflected in routines, whereby Spanish and English are used. Nevertheless, the focus of the study is specifically on the elements of Spanish language used in these contexts. Generally, the quantity of Spanish Lingo 10 interaction directly impacts the potential for improving Spanish proficiency as more frequent Spanish interactions provide more extensive exposure to elements of Spanish language. Table 1 Showing Spanish-speaking Subjects, Trinidadian Interlocutors and Pragmatic Contexts Subject A Level of Level of Occupation Communication Trinidadian Level of Level of ge English English Function (Routine) Interlocuto Spanish Spanish (self- (CEFR) r (self- (CEFR) assessment) assessment ) 1.Kali 26 Intermediate B1 Bartender, ● To shadow Kerwin Beginner A1-A2 waitress head (Head bartender Bartender) ● To mix drinks (measure quantities of liquids, mix in blender, put ice) ● To create new drinks ● To put garnishes on drinks 2. 35 Intermediate B1 Supervisor ● To open the Miranda Beginner A1 Belinda at a casual restaurant (Supervisor dining ● To at a casual restaurant supervise dining the staff and restaurant) delegate duties ● To check the inventory ● To undertake opening and closing procedures ● To tend to customer complaints and concerns ● To manage online marketing for restaurant ● To mix drinks as bartender Lingo 11 3. 41 Beginner A1 Shelf ● To pack Annette Beginner A1/ Galeno Stocker at goods on (Cashier) monolingual convenienc shelves e store ● To pack goods in fridge ● To label merchandise with prices ● To bring goods to the front of the store as required by co-workers 4.Wendy 19 Beginner A1 Wrapper at ● To pack Nathalie Beginner A1/monolingual a customer (Cashier) supermarket goods into bags and into trolleys ● To take trolleys to cars ● To pack bags into ● customer trunks ● To bring trolleys ● from car to store The extent to which these interactions can improve proficiency is dependent on the level of English of the Venezuelan subject (which directly determines the level of Spanish in use, as Venezuelans with high proficiency in English tend to communicate in English). The level of Spanish competency of the Trinidadian interlocutor impacts the level of Spanish used, as low levels of Spanish competency generally inhibit the use of Spanish. Moreover, the occupation and nature of job tasks of participants is an important factor as some jobs require little interaction whereas others require extensive communication. Figure 1 below illustrates the intersection between the Venezuelan migrant’s level of English and the level of Spanish of the potential 2LLs (second language learners) in four work contexts in the food industry. Lingo 12 MIGRANT SUBJECT Intermediate Basic Proficiency Proficiency A1/A2 English B1/ B2 English Handy Supervisor Wrapper at Bartender helper supermarket Head Bartender Supervisor Cashier Cashier Basic Proficiency Monolingual A1/A2 Spanish POTENTIAL L2 LEARNER OF SPANISH Figure 1 Showing the Interaction Between English Proficiency Levels of Subjects, Spanish Proficiency of Interlocutors and Job Functions Procedures The methodological procedures were conducted on a phased basis. Firstly, at the pilot stage, the researcher observed social interactions between Venezuelan and Trinidadian employees at a green grocer, in order to elicit vocabulary and language structures occurring in a naturalistic setting, thereby accounting for typical elements of Spanish used by Venezuelan migrants in the Trinidadian workplace, where formal learning of Spanish is not taking place. Following this, a general observation stage was conducted, whereby four contexts were investigated in order to determine the extent to which Spanish was in use in each case, and how Lingo 13 proficiency levels between job-related peers might intersect. The third stage involved a semi- structured interview with Trinidadian and Venezuelan peers (conducted in the subject’s native language) and deeper observation in order to authentically triangulate the communicative contexts for the use of Spanish from the perspectives of peers. Moreover, a short questionnaire on motivation, learner beliefs, learning styles, anxiety and language shock, was administered to the Trinidadian participants who were potentially 2LLs of Spanish. The final stage, an elicitation stage, was conducted through a Discourse Completion Test (DCT) adapted from Gass and Mackey, which made use of the task-related lexicon collected during the pilot and general observation stages to account for how much Spanish was being used and acquired in work settings by Trinidadians5. Upon receiving verbal and written consent of participants, interviews and elicitation exercises were recorded. Data Analysis A grounded theory approach was adopted, whereby data collected during the first two stages was used to develop the elicitation instrument in the fourth phase. Upon completion of data collection, the study followed a deductive thematic analysis approach, whereby the theoretical concepts of Schumann’s acculturation factors and pragmatic factors guided coding and thematic development as the method of data analysis (Clarke et at. 225). Moreover, the Celce-Murcia et al. model of classifying communicative content in communicative language learning, (built upon Canale and Swain’s evolved models of communicative competence6) was used to categorise the functions of Spanish language structures being acquired in the context of the food industry. The model identifies five 5 Gass, Susan, and Alison Mackey. “Sociolinguistics and Pragmatics-Based Research.” Data Elicitation for Second and Foreign Language Research, by Susan Gass and Alison Mackey, Routledge, 2011, pp. 129–147. 6 Canale, Michael, and Merril Swain. “Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing.” Applied Linguistics, vol. 1, no. 1, 1980, pp. 1–47. Lingo 14 communicative competencies including (1)linguistic competence (sentence patterns, type and structure, morphological inflections, lexical resources, phonological and orthographic systems required for communication); (2) strategic competence (knowledge of communication strategies and use); (3) sociocultural competence (knowledge of social and cultural contexts of communication and pragmatic factors to use language appropriately); (4) actional competence (marrying communicative intent with linguistic form- illocutionary element- based on the knowledge of verbal schemata) and (5) discourse competence (“the selection, sequencing, and arrangement of words, structures, sentences and utterances to achieve a unified spoken or written text”) (13). This model is useful for interpreting the communicative functions that are present in the repertoire of Trinidadian interlocutors who have come into contact with Spanish- speaking peers. Chapter Outline This study consists of three chapters. Chapter one presents the theoretical framework guiding the study, SLA theories relating to informal community language learning, and the workplace and immigration context. Chapter two describes the findings of the study and chapter three provides a detailed discussion of the findings as it relates to the theoretical framework, along with the implications of the findings and the limitations of the study. Ethical considerations Before observation and interviews were conducted, permission was obtained from the owners of all establishments to ensure that migrants’ employment was not compromised. Moreover, each participant was informed about the rationale of the study and the confidentiality of their contributions through an informed consent form written in the native language of the participants. Furthermore, each participant was interviewed in his/her native language in order to assure the uniformity and objectivity of the study. This was particularly Lingo 15 important for Venezuelan subjects, as it allowed the researcher to clearly communicate that participation in the study would not threaten subjects’ job or status in Trinidad and Tobago. In addition, participants were represented by pseudonyms in order to preserve their anonymity. Lingo 16 Chapter One Literature Review SLA is the process of learning a language other than one’s mother tongue with little to no formal training (Hoque 1). The field of SLA is ever changing and there is currently no consensus among theorists on a single theory which effectively explains and predicts every aspect of this process. Moreover, different theories are applied to different SLA contexts. In this study, theories applicable to an informal community language learning context and immigration context must be examined. Hence, the Input Hypothesis, Acculturation Theory, Sociocultural Theory, the Role of Pragmatics and Community Language Learning Theory must be examined, in order to evaluate the role of interactions with native Spanish speakers on Trinidadians’ acquisition of Spanish in the workplace. Input Hypothesis Gass affirms that SLA cannot take place in a vacuum without exposure to language input. Moreover, according to Krashen, 2LLs require comprehensible language “input” in order to progress in the target language (TL). This translates to natural communication with native speakers in low anxiety situations. In addition, Krashen posits that the 2LL must receive input which is one step beyond his/her current stage of competence in the language, “i + 1” (Krashen 132). This hypothesis relegates the importance of learner production in the L2 to a secondary role. Furthermore, TL attitudes (acquirers’ attitudes towards speakers of the TL) play an important role as positive attitudinal factors encourage useful input for L2 acquisition to be available and they allow 2LLs to be more receptive to input (Krashen 5). While Krashen’s comprehensible input theory has been widely accepted, it has also been criticised. White affirms that incomprehensible input also enhances SLA by providing negative feedback to the 2LL and highlighting elements to be acquired. Furthermore, Swain Lingo 17 posits that output is essential as it allows for negotiation of meaning and corrective feedback. Gass and Selinker note that other features of input, such as frequency, and other variables, such as 2LLs’ prior knowledge and attention, play a role (310). Thus, some consideration will also be given to preparation in Spanish at school among Trinidadian employees who now have the opportunity to activate prior knowledge as communicative competence. Nevertheless, the main critics of the input hypothesis interpret it as an oversimplification of the complex SLA process. This complexity must be explored further as part of the process of SLA in the community context. Still, the input hypothesis provides evidence for SLA in the context of interactions with native speakers in the workplace. However, it cannot serve as the main hypothesis for this specific situation as factors of immigration and social dominance, the status of the L2 in the host country and acculturation influence the frequency and quality of input to which acquirers, Trinidadian restaurant workers, are exposed. Acculturation Theory Acculturation in SLA can be defined as “social and psychological integration of the 2LL within the TL group” (Schumann 379). This therefore examines sociolinguistic and social psychological factors in the L2 learning process. According to this theory, SLA occurs as a part of an acculturation process and the degree of language proficiency is determined by the degree to which a 2LL acculturates to the target culture (Schuman 379). McLaughlin notes that this is relevant to informal language learning settings, unstructured learning due to exposure to the TL at school, home, work or in social interactions (Rogers 3). Hence, this theory is relevant to the current study. According to Schumann, social and psychological contact with the TL speakers is essential to SLA (380). Moreover, he posits the existence of social variables which either Lingo 18 hamper or facilitate this process. The factor of social dominance impacts SLA in situations where the “2LL group is politically, culturally, technically or economically superior (dominant) to the TL group” and consequently “tends not to learn the TL” (Schumann 381). This factor is particularly important in this study as Trinidadian workers, members of the host community, hold positions of dominance. Moreover, the factor of the 2LL group’s intended length of stay in the TL area must be noted as the “TL area” would translate to the workplace. Other social factors affecting SLA involve integration strategies (assimilation, preservation and adaptation). Assimilation involves the adoption of the TL group’s lifestyle, thereby boosting contact between the two groups and facilitating SLA. Preservation, however, involves rejection of the TL group’s culture, thereby creating social distance between the groups and hampering SLA. As the name suggests, adaptation involves adapting to the culture of the TL group while maintaining one’s lifestyle, leading to varying degrees of contact between groups and, therefore, varying degrees of SLA. These factors must be evaluated in the present study as 2LLs are a part of a dominant host community, where English is the official language and Trinidadian English Creole is the home language, thereby complicating the SLA process. Enclosure evaluates the extent to which both groups share the same churches, schools, clubs, professions and trades. If enclosure is low, contact between groups is extensive, thereby enhancing SLA. In this study, contact with Venezuelan migrants outside of workplace interaction must be considered. Furthermore, cohesiveness and size affect acculturation as the more cohesive a 2LL group is and the greater its size, the greater its social distance from the TL group. This factor is particularly important as Trinidadians outnumber Venezuelan migrants in the workplace because of the immigrants being “tolerated” under the Ministry of National Security’s 2019 Migrant Registration Initiative. Despite concerns regarding irregular migration Lingo 19 that is difficult to police due to porous borders and a swell in numbers, no new registrants are being considered since 2019.7 Moreover, the congruence between the cultures of both groups can impact SLA, by encouraging intra-group contact. Likewise, attitude must be considered as SLA is facilitated when both groups have positive attitudes toward each other, but hampered when this is negative. These factors must be examined in the specific case of the population under study regarding attitudes in the workplace, whereby the culture of Venezuelan migrants and their positive reception at work might be evident. Furthermore, affective variables must be considered. Language shock, created when adults are “haunted by doubts” and “fear, criticism and ridicule”, hampers SLA (Schumann 382). Motivation, defined as the learners’ reasons for L2 learning, can either hamper or facilitate SLA. Schumann notes that integrative motivation may be more effective than instrumental motivation in contexts where acquisition of the L2 is not necessary. This is an interesting factor in the current study as, while Spanish continues to grow in importance, it is not an official language of Trinidad and Tobago. Furthermore, ego permeability is another factor which facilitates SLA if the learner’s language ego boundaries are permeable, meaning that he/ she is more “open” to other’s personalities (Schumann 384). Hence, these variables must be considered. Moreover, Dörnyei cites individual differences such as aptitude, motivation, learning styles, language learning strategies, anxiety, willingness to communicate, and learner beliefs as factors which also influence SLA. 7 UNHCR. UNHCR Trinidad and Tobago Fact Sheet, UNHCR, 2020. Lingo 20 The acculturation model has not been spared from criticism. Brown affirms that this model is restricted to SLA in the environment of the second culture, thereby focusing primarily on the impact of the dominant culture on the minority culture. (162). The situation is the reverse for Trinidadian employees because the learner culture is more dominant than the second culture. Nevertheless, Young postulates that in spite of dominant groups’ general greater cultural influence, acculturation is not purely “a linear process” (3). Moreover, Clément notes that minority group members are significantly more acculturated than majority groups due to conditions of high frequency of contact (285). Hence, there is a possibility for L2 acquisition of immigrants’ language by members of a host country due to frequent contact with immigrants. In this study, there is significant evidence for L2 acquisition of Spanish due to the frequency of contact with TL speakers in the workplace. However, this has not been sufficiently analysed, evidenced by the absence of research in this field. Therefore, the present study is essential to respond to this gap in the acculturation theory of SLA, in the work context. Sociocultural Theory Sociocultural theory is “an integrative approach to human cognition” based on the Vygotskian theory of the zone of proximal development, “the cognitive gap between what learners can do unaided and with assistance” (Ohta 649; Lantolf 29). In SLA, this translates to holistic language development through social, interactional and cognitive processes which are influenced by learner activity and agency. Learner activity and agency examine how acquirers forge their learning, and the factors motivating them to invest effort into learning, thereby affirming that “the language acquisition device is not located in the head of the individual but is situated in the dialogic interaction that arises between individuals” (Flowerdew and Miller 204; Lantolf and Pavlenko 110). Lingo 21 Traditionally, sociocultural theory is used to assess the role of teachers in language development in a classroom setting. However, several studies, such as Swain and Lapkin’s investigation of the interaction among French immersion students, have evaluated the role of assistance from “true peers who may or may not have greater expertise” than the learners (Ohta 652). Assistance from both peers and teachers (scaffolding) has been shown to be beneficial to SLA in some cases, but “actual development depends on the learner’s own activity and agency” (Ohta 669). In order to be successful, “the learner must take responsibility for his/her own performance and assistance must be negotiated” (Ohta 662). Sociocultural theory must be examined as the roles of teacher, learner and true peer are not as clearly defined and the potential roles of Venezuelan employees as true peers in the SLA process must be examined in this study. Moreover, learner activity and agency may differ greatly from that of a learner in a classroom setting. Hence, sociocultural theory provides a basis for the exploration of SLA but it does not sufficiently address specific variables of the workplace setting, since agency is likely affected by the immigration setting and a dominant English- speaking and Creole linguaculture. Community Language Learning Theory Community language learning approach, as developed by Charles Arthur Curran, is a humanistic method focusing on interaction and emphasising “growth in the understanding of others ‘sensitivity to human feelings” rather than psycholinguistic and cognitive processes (Çakır 4). Hence, language is viewed as “a social activity where the process is participating in a knowledge building community” (Xiangui 123). Therefore, this method employs techniques such as free conversation and reflective listening to help learners overcome learning barriers such as anxiety, reluctance and low motivation. Lingo 22 While shown to be effective, this method has been criticised. Çakır notes its impracticality in the classroom context (12). However, Azira’s study has shown that it is successful at overcoming barriers to language learning of initially unapproachable, reluctant and resistant students8. Hence, in spite of its design for the classroom setting, this approach mimics interactions in informal settings and can be applied to real-life interactions between native speakers and acquirers. However, it is insufficient in explaining all factors involved in this interaction. Nevertheless, any indication of community building in the workplace as overcoming individual barriers to interaction and enabling SLA is worth considering. Role of Pragmatics SLA research has shifted from examining factors to evaluating contexts. Hence, it now examines “intra- and inter-individual variations as the result of interactions between an individual learner’s various attributes and contexts, constrained by contextual resources” (Takahashi 429). Furthermore, situational variables (such as gender) are factors which affect SLA. Dörnyei and Clement note that females are more motivated than men in L2 learning (413). Women have also been found to have more positive attitudes towards learning a foreign language and more interest in the target culture (Van der Slik et al. 3). These variables must be examined with respect to the current study. Moreover, many attempts have been made to situate SLA as a socialisation process whereby the acquirer acts as a social agent. As such, “macro-social contexts and micro- sociolinguistic settings'' must be evaluated (Véronique 259). There are five different types of macro-contexts: dominant L2 (learners are immigrant workers immersed in the TL environment), external L2 (learning the L2 in the learners’ country or in study abroad projects), 8 Ariza, Eileen N. “Resurrecting ‘Old’ Language Learning Methods to Reduce Anxiety for New Language Learners: Community Language Learning to the Rescue.” Bilingual Research Journal, vol. 26, no. 3, 2002, pp. 717–728., doi:10.1080/15235882.2002.10162586. Lingo 23 coexisting and institutional L2 (learners are multilingual speakers) and, minority L2 (speakers of the dominant language learn the minority language) ( Seigel 179). The minority L2 context, which is applicable to this study, is rarely examined, thereby legitimising the need for the current study. One existing study which examines this setting is Rampton’s investigation of Panjabi learning and use among adolescents in England. Rampton affirms that in this context, L2 learning did not generate “situational anxiety” (292). While valuable to the current study, it examines a setting where L2 learning takes place mainly through social interactions. Hence, due to its focus on a work context, the current study seeks to examine the pragmatics of this context, whereby communication can be task-based, functional and related to social interactions. Furthermore, there are four types of contexts crucial to language socialization and to social integration: “instructional contexts (explaining rules), regulative contexts (strategies of control), imaginative context (narratives) and interpersonal contexts'' (Véronique 259). There are also varying levels of interpersonal context: “(1) the context created as the interaction unfolds; (2) the contexts of previous similar interactions; and (3) the wider social contexts of living as a member of a minority ethnic group.” (Roberts and Simnot 136). These theorists analyse L2 acquisition of migrants and affirm that “the concept of interaction must go deep enough to account for the fact that native speakers, more likely than not, are not providing the support that ‘cocoons’ the learner” (135). However, little attention has been given to whether migrants, who become the native speakers in minority L2 contexts, also provide little support to learners. Hence, the current study seeks to examine this context. In addition, identity and power relations must be considered. Defined as one’s social grouping and understanding of “his or her relationship to the world”, identity impacts one’s sensitivity to the sociocultural context of language learning (Véronique 261). Moreover, Lingo 24 inequitable power relations hamper the learner’s acquisition. Similarly, societal integration is another factor of SLA in naturalistic settings. According to Véronique, it can both help and hinder SLA, and “when social distance and social discrimination are strong, the chances of becoming a legitimate speaker are slight” (261). These factors must be situated in the context of the workplace, given the unequal power relations between migrants and 2LL of Spanish in the setting of this study. Role of Pragmatics: The Workplace Setting Moreover, identity and power relations affect communication. Power dynamics determine “certain conversational rights and obligations such as initiating or ending a conversation” (Timpe-Laughlin 414). Hence, native speakers in a position of authority over L2 learners may be more likely to impart knowledge of their language than native speakers holding subordinate positions. Therefore, L2 learners in this context are faced with the task of deciphering the communicative situation (levels of familiarity, power, and solidarity needs) and different types of knowledge about the TL pragmatic norms, and must tailor what they say accordingly. This context therefore allows for the acquisition of “pragmatic knowledge necessary to use the TL appropriately in different communicative encounters” (Timpe- Laughlin 416). Timpe-Laughlin notes, “the workplace constitutes a specific context that—from a linguistic perspective—is located at the intersection of language socialization and language for specific purposes” (416). Hence, technical and industry-specific jargon and institutional- specific interaction (how to address people, formality and acceptable language) influence institutional talk. Requests and small talk are context-dependent. This suggests the type of functional and formulaic language that can be learnt in the workplace as concrete evidence of Trinidadian employees learning Spanish. Lingo 25 Acquirers in the workplace can “notice pragmatic phenomena (upon exposure to input) that may be different from their L1 and deploy them in interaction” (Timpe-Laughlin 417). Therefore, the work setting can be an effective context for L2 acquisition of Spanish by Trinidadians. However, factors such as power relations and the identity of the learners as members of the host community must be analysed in relation to the present study. Learning Language in the Community Context Existing research on SLA in the community context focuses on immersion, whereby the 2LL is immersed in the TL culture. One such study by Segalowitz et al. examines the differences in linguistic gains of Anglophone Spanish students in classroom settings versus Anglophone Spanish students in a study abroad context. The results show that the latter made greater gains in oral proficiency and fluency than the “at home group” whereas the former made greater gains in grammatical performance (Segalowitz 8). Although this study does not reflect the minority SLA context of learning Spanish in Trinidad, some of its conclusions are applicable. Firstly, while the findings confirm the hypothesis that “the more students communicated on a regular basis with native speakers, the more they became attuned to the pragmatic demands of a communicative context”, the nature of the communicative interactions must be considered (Segalowitz et al. 13). Moreover, learners who lack certain cognitive or linguistic abilities or fail to develop these abilities through experience in the early stages of learning may become “overwhelmed and/or discouraged at later stages when they cannot meet demands of communicating in more complex situations”, leading to decreased motivation to communicate with TL speakers, thereby hampering SLA (Segalowitz et al. 15). Hence, the nature of the communication between Lingo 26 Venezuelan migrants and Trinidadian employees in the food industry, as well as Trinidadians’ backgrounds in Spanish must be considered within the minority SLA context of the study. The aforementioned theories and hypotheses provide a theoretical framework for the present study. However, they are insufficient in their explanations of the phenomena being investigated. Hence, a clear research gap exists, and the present study attempts to respond to this gap by elucidating the linguistic impact of an immigrant population on the host population through the analysis of the impact of interactions with Venezuelan migrants on L2 acquisition of Spanish among Trinidadians, in relation to the pragmatic demands of their learner context. Lingo 27 Chapter Two Results The results of the study show the output from the pilot study between Spanish-speaking and Trinidadian interlocutors who are matched according to their competency levels of Spanish and English at Stage 1, and the outcomes of triangulating the Discourse Completion Test at Stage 4. These results are supported by a more extensive discussion of pragmatic, sociocultural and individual factors of which the latter are the least salient in relation to L2 acquisition of Spanish in the food industry among Trinidadian 2LLs. Spanish Language Use in the Food Industry The results of the pilot study showed that while some elements of Spanish vocabulary and formulaic language are being used among Trinidadian and Venezuelan employees of the food industry, these elements correspond to the A1 beginner level of the CEFR. Basic expressions and single words are being used rather than full sentences and extended conversations. Moreover, these instances of Spanish use correlate to social interactions (through greetings and social formulae) more often than vocabulary for work-related activities. When Spanish is used during work-related activities, interrogative forms, imperatives and interjections are employed. Furthermore, single nouns and verbs in their infinitive form are sometimes used to indicate commonplace commands (see table 2). Table 2 Showing Elements of Spanish Used and the Linguistic Functions of These Elements in a Typical Setting in the Food Industry, a Green Grocer. Category Examples Communicative Function Greetings and Social Hola To greet Spanish-speaking co- Formulae workers upon arrival at workplace/ to greet Spanish- speaking clients Lingo 28 Buenos días To greet Spanish-speaking co- workers in the morning upon arrival at workplace Buenas tardes To greet co-workers after lunch To say goodbye to Spanish- Buenas noches speaking co-workers after night shifts To greet Spanish-speaking co- Buen provecho workers before meals To greet Spanish-speaking co- ¿Cómo estás? workers upon arrival at the ¿Qué pasa? workplace To say goodbye to Spanish- Adiós speaking co-workers before Chao leaving the workplace To greet a Spanish-speaking Señor co-worker/ Spanish-speaking client To express gratitude towards Gracias Spanish-speaking co-workers when offered assistance/ when a task is completed Task specific vocabulary Basura To ask Spanish-speaking co- High Frequency Structures: workers to take out the trash/ to Nouns, Terms of Address and collect the trash Diminutives Bolsa To ask Spanish-speaking co- workers to get a bag for customers Poquito To refer to a small fruit/ vegetable Mañana To refer to when a task will be completed Comprendo To acknowledge comments made by co-workers Niño/ niña To refer to customers/ to signal Hombre which customers Spanish- Chiquitita speaking co-workers must Lingo 29 assist Interrogatives ¿Dónde? To find out where an item of food/ ingredient is ¿Dónde es…..? (sic.) To find out where another co- worker is ¿Cómo se dice…. en español? To find out the Spanish equivalent of a word or expression in English Imperatives and Related Preparar To indicate that a task must be Function Words completed Ven acá To get the attention of a Spanish-speaking co-worker Rápido To indicate that a task should be completed faster Ayúdame To ask a co-worker for assistance with a task Interjections To get the attention of a Mira Spanish-speaking co-worker Amigo Pero Esto ¡Qué! Ay, muchacha Ven acá The subsequent four cases in the second, third and fourth stages of the study highlighted that some of these elements were not present in employee interactions, and some additional elements were used. Moreover, the elements of Spanish used by Trinidadian interlocutors are highly dependent on the input to which they are exposed, the nature of their jobs, the power Lingo 30 relations existing between these workers and, to a lesser extent, their individual attitudes and beliefs about Spanish. The results of the Discourse Completion Test illustrate some commonplace language use occurring across cases. Results of the Discourse Completion Test Data fed into the Discourse Completion Test comprised twelve likely communicative situations that were common to each case, thereby representing areas of Spanish vocabulary and structures Trinidadian workers in the food sector are exposed to and may be acquiring as a result (see table 3). The results showed nevertheless that no participant responded appropriately to every situation. In fact, one participant did not respond to any items. The appropriateness of responses was determined based on success in accomplishing the communicative goals of each situation, and not grammatical accuracy. Table 3 Showing Communicative Situations and Trinidadian Interlocutors Who Responded Appropriately Communicative Situation Kerwin Miranda Annette Nathalie 1. Greeting Spanish- speaking co-workers/ customers ✓ ✓ ✓ ✕ “Hola” 2. Greeting Spanish- speaking co-workers/ customers in the ✓ ✓ ✓ ✕ morning “Buenos días” 3. Greeting Spanish- speaking co- workers/customers in ✓ ✓ ✕ ✕ the afternoon “Buenas tardes” Lingo 31 4. Greeting Spanish- speaking co- workers/customers ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ before meals “Buen provecho” 5. Expressing gratitude ✓ ✕ ✓ ✕ “Gracias” 6. Saying goodbye ✓ ✕ ✕ ✕ “Adiós/ chao/ hasta mañana” 7. Finding out where an ✓ ✕ item or a co-worker is ✕ ✕ “¿Dónde está(n)?” 8. Finding out the Spanish ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ equivalent of an English word “¿Cómo se dice…?” 9. Delegating tasks ✓ ✕ ✕ ✕ Imperative verb forms, “Agua, table using nouns to indicate dos” task 10. Indicating that a task ✓ ✕ should be performed more quickly “Rápido, ✕ ✕ rápido” 11. Asking for assistance ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ verb “ayudar” 12. Getting the attention of a ✓ ✕ co-worker “uno momento ✕ ✕ por favor” (sic.) The DCT seems to indicate that L2 acquisition of Spanish is limited and that interlocutors who were exposed to more frequent comprehensible input were most likely to Lingo 32 demonstrate competence in key communicative situations in the food industry. The non- acquisition of Spanish, despite exposure to native speaking peers, would suggest the impact of additional pragmatic and sociocultural factors to be explored further in the discussion section. In Case 1, Kerwin’s exposure to input seemed extensive in comparison to other cases, based on the DCT, and his success seemed to be linked to positive attitudes towards Spanish- speaking culture and personal beliefs. In Schumann’s model, this corresponds to ego permeability. Similarly, Miranda’s performance on the DCT, in Case 2, suggests frequent exposure to input but her frequent requests for English translations from Spanish- speaking peers demonstrated a correspondingly low level of ego permeability. The implications for this will be discussed further in relation to individual factors and SLA in the subsequent section. In contrast, Annette and Nathalie’s performance, in Case 3 and Case 4, hints at low levels of comprehensible input from Spanish-speaking peers. In Nathalie’s case, an unquantifiable score on the DCT shows that the presence of a Spanish-speaking peer does not necessarily assure motivation and acquisition of Spanish. These factors will be further expanded upon in the discussion. Communicative Competence as Content Analysis of the specific communicative content found in the repertoire of Trinidadians is assisted by the Celce-Murcia et al. communicative content model. All Trinidadian interlocutors used Spanish as repeated words acquired from Venezuelan colleagues, as they displayed lexical linguistic competence, as communicative content, especially with Spanish-speaking co-workers and customers (see figure 2). Moreover, a similar number used Spanish for greeting their Spanish-speaking colleagues, or for expressing sociocultural functions. Only one participant used an aspect of Spanish Lingo 33 morphology (the use of diminutive) to explain aspects of Trinidadian culture, a display of morphological linguistic competence. Only two subjects used Spanish to replace English words which were unfamiliar to Venezuelan counterparts. In the model by Celce-Murcia et al., this is an example of Trinidadians using strategic competence of a compensatory nature. Two participants also used Spanish for “comic relief”, equivalent to sociocultural competence according to Celce-Murcia et al. for achieving congruence (identification with Hispanic culture, according to Schumann). The Discussion section places these results in the context of pragmatic, sociocultural and individual factors. Figure 2 Showing Communicative Situations (as Content) In Which Trinidadian Interlocutors Used Spanish Chapter Three Discussion Lingo 34 The findings of this study also confirm that pragmatic contexts, Schumann’s acculturation factors, as well as individual factors impact the quantity and quality of Spanish language input to which Trinidadian employees in the food sector are exposed, the output they produce and, ultimately, the extent to which they acquire elements of Spanish. Limited output produced by Trinidadian interlocutors due to pragmatic, sociocultural and individual factors (namely motivation) impacted their acquisition and non- acquisition of Spanish. Pragmatic Contexts In the informal L2 setting of the workplace, it was noted that contextual factors such as the forced migration situation of Venezuelan peers, social status and social dominance had a greater impact on SLA than individual factors. Pragmatic Factors 1. Contexts of Use In spite of high levels of interest in teaching Spanish, Venezuelans admitted that low proficiency levels in Spanish among Trinidadian co-workers and their own desire to practise English were reasons for this limited use of Spanish (see table 4). Instead, Venezuelan participants used Spanish in the workplace with Spanish-speaking customers and co-workers, and with Trinidadian customers and Trinidadian co-workers, only upon request. The extent to which Spanish was used with Trinidadian customers depended on their Spanish proficiency levels, as well as their desire to communicate in Spanish. Nevertheless, these conversations generally consisted namely of basic greetings and pleasantries. A discussion of social dominance as a sociocultural factor, to follow, will elucidate the reason for inconsistent input. In the interim, Table 4 illustrates that this specific workplace context did not lend itself to extensive Spanish use due to fear, prohibition (as seen in two cases), desires of Spanish- speaking peers to assimilate into Trinidadian society by learning English, and low Spanish Lingo 35 proficiency levels of Trinidadian interlocutors. These justifications mirror the effects of regulative contexts (strategies of control), expressed by Véronique, whereby English use is prioritised in the host country. Table 4 Showing Venezuelan Participants’ Reasons for Their Limited Use of Spanish in the Workplace Subject Reasons for Limited Use of Spanish in Workplace Kali 1. Low proficiency in Spanish of Trinidadian colleagues 2. Fear that non-Spanish-speaking staff would think something negative is being said 3. Desire for practice in English Belinda 1. Low proficiency in Spanish of Trinidadians/ use of Spanish would be “disrespectful” 2. Lack of interest of Trinidadian colleagues in learning Spanish Galeno 1. Low proficiency in Spanish of Trinidadians 2. Prohibition of Spanish use with Trinidadian colleagues by employer 3. Desire for practice in English Wendy 1. Low proficiency in Spanish of Trinidadian colleagues 2. Limited verbal interaction with colleagues Spanish language input provided by Venezuelans was generally limited to specific content. According to the Celce-Murcia et al. model of classifying communicative content in communicative language learning, there were five potential communicative competencies, which could have facilitated input. However, only four were in use by Spanish-speaking interlocutors because of low-level communicative functions. There were instances of lexical Lingo 36 linguistic competence (teaching Trinidadian interlocutors vocabulary related to tasks) and sociocultural competence (greeting a Spanish-speaking customer or co-worker, greeting and employing social formulae with Trinidadian customers and responding to non-work related requests by Trinidadian co-workers). Instances of strategic competence (replacing an English word or paraphrasing when vocabulary is limited) and actional competence (to get a Trinidadian or Venezuelan co-worker’s attention or to vent when stressed) were also observed (see figure 3). Input was limited to basic greetings, expressions and single words. Hence, comprehensible input is low, and this was also enabled by Trinidadian interlocutors’ low proficiency in Spanish, ranging from basic proficiency (A1/A2) to monolingual. Figure 3 Showing Communicative Situations (As Content) in Which Venezuelan Peers Used Spanish The figure above shows that the high levels of sociocultural content match the low levels functional acquisition of Spanish by Trinidadian interlocutors in the results of the study. Moreover, Trinidadians seemed unable to activate the little Spanish that they were exposed to Lingo 37 on the Discourse Completion Test. This shows that mere exposure without frequency of input is not sufficient for true language acquisition. Moreover, the study confirms that the level of English among Venezuelans was generally higher than the Spanish of their Trinidadian counterparts, and the regulatory contexts of “using little Spanish” also discussed in Table 4 above would ultimately inhibit how much actual lexical content Venezuelans perceived that they were supplying as input. Figure 1 in this study outlines the unequal peer configuration between Spanish-speaking migrants and Trinidadian interlocutors across four contexts, except for one instance. 2.Inconsistent True Peers Therefore, the Spanish used by Venezuelan peers was also incidental and generally occurred only upon request and most frequently related to socialisation. Intermediate English proficiency levels among Spanish-speaking peers inhibited their use of Spanish. Even participants with lower proficiency levels opted for English and gestures in communicative scenarios. This is due to a desire to learn English for survival, job tenure and security, and to assimilate into Trinidadian society. They also noted that Spanish use would be inappropriate due to Trinidadian interlocutors’ low Spanish proficiency levels. As such, Venezuelan peers were not necessarily providing sufficient support via scaffolding to promote SLA. Moreover, learner agency among Trinidadian counterparts differs greatly from context to context in workplace setting. These variables are explored in the section about individual factors. Sociocultural Factors In spite of social contact with Venezuelan peers, Trinidadian interlocutors demonstrated adaptation (adjusting to the culture of the TL group while maintaining one’s Lingo 38 lifestyle) through few but limited attempts to participate in Venezuelan culture and in some cases, preservation (rejection of the TL group’s culture and no attempts to participate in it) due to the factors of social dominance, size, enclosure, intended length of stay, cultural congruence and attitudes. These impacted the frequency and quality of input and output and therefore, SLA. a. Social Dominance In the context of this study, 2LLs were members of the dominant culture and speakers of the dominant language as members of the host community. This position of superiority hampered Trinidadians’ desire and motivation to produce output and acquire Spanish, as this is not necessary for survival. Furthermore, individual power dynamics existing between Venezuelan peers and Trinidadian interlocutors contributed to social dominance. In the professional relationships among Kerwin and Kali, Annette and Galeno, and Nathalie and Wendy, Trinidadian interlocutors held positions of superiority, thereby hampering their opportunities for L2 acquisition of Spanish. In the case of Miranda and Belinda, who held positions of equality in the workplace, English was the preferred language of communication due to its status in the host community, and Miranda's Trinidadian identity and subsequent position of superiority as a member of the host community b. Size In each workplace, there were several Venezuelan employees. However, the mere presence of Venezuelans was not as assistive as anticipated. Cohesiveness hampered SLA due to migrants’ tendency to “stick together”, thereby inhibiting integration and intercultural exchanges as noted by Schumann. Moreover, on a larger scale, the registered Venezuelan workforce in the formal work sector is 16,523 workers9 The size of this minority group in 9 Mohan, Shiva. “A 'Migrant Registration Framework': Counting Venezuelan Immigrants in Trinidad & Tobago.” OxMo: Oxford Monitor of Forced Migration, OxMo: Oxford Monitor of Forced Migration, 21 Aug. 2019, www.oxforcedmigration.com/post/a-migrant-registration-framework-counting-venezuelan-immigrants-in-trinidad-tobago. Lingo 39 relation to the Trinidadian workforce explains its insignificant cultural impact at the workplace. c. Enclosure Enclosure examines the extent of everyday contact among 2LLs and TL speakers. Participants demonstrated varying levels of enclosure, with Case 1 (Kerwin) demonstrating the lowest level and Cases 4 and 5 (Annette and Nathalie) demonstrating the highest levels (see figure 4). Hence, enclosure aided SLA in Case 1 due to greater exposure to input outside of the workplace, but hampered this process in the other cases where this exposure was limited or non-existent. Kerwin Miranda Annette Nathalie Extensive Venezuelans present communication with in community but Lack of Venezuelans in interactions with them Venezuelans in community are limited community Low High Enclosure Enclosure Figure 4 Showing Levels of Enclosure of Trinidadian Workers Defined by Contact with Venezuelans Outside of the Workplace d. Intended Length of Stay Lingo 40 Most Venezuelans might be considered to be in transit, and Trinidad and Tobago is not a true “refugee-receiving nation.” Even so, migrants are in tolerated positions due to having been given work amnesty rather than a work permit. In addition, work relationships existing between participants varied, ranged from four months to two years (see figure 5). Longer work relationships did not necessarily promote SLA, as the case of Miranda and Belinda indicates. Figure 5 Showing Length of Time During Which Participants Have Worked Together e. Cultural Congruence and Attitudes to Learning Spanish Two participants expressed great interest in Hispanic culture and congruence, citing the desire to relate to speakers and personal interest as justifications. This would have encouraged SLA. However, two participants expressed moderate levels of interest, due to general lack of interest and its lack of relevance to the participant, thereby hampering community building and SLA. Spanish use at the workplace was not seen as a priority to Trinidadian interlocutors due to several attitudinal factors. Motivation to use and acquire Spanish was generally low, with Lingo 41 three participants reporting being “unbothered” by their colleagues’ use of Spanish. In order to deal with communicative situations, all participants asked for clarifications of meanings in English and two participants asked Venezuelan colleagues to speak in English. Only two participants noted feeling encouraged to learn more and one participant attempted to search for the meanings of words online. Moreover, attitudes towards Spanish use at the workplace revealed that most participants deemed it unnecessary given time constraints, their limited Spanish proficiency and Venezuelan peers’ desire to practise English (see table 5) Table 5 Showing Trinidadian Interlocutors’ Reasons for Their Limited Use of Spanish in the Workplace Subject Reasons for Limited Use of Spanish in Workplace Kerwin 1. Lack of time on the job 2. Limited knowledge of Spanish vocabulary Miranda 1. Lack of time on the job 2. Limited knowledge of Spanish vocabulary 3. Venezuelan colleague’s desire to practise English Annette 1. Lack of necessity for Spanish use in the workplace 2. Limited interaction with Venezuelan colleague 3. Lack of time for deeper interaction with Venezuelan colleague Nathalie 1. Lack of necessity for Spanish use in the workplace 2. Length of time working with Venezuelan colleague 3. Limited interaction with Venezuelan colleague Individual Factors Lingo 42 Apart from sociocultural factors, individual factors such as motivation, language shock, anxiety and learner beliefs must be considered, as they can promote or hamper TL use and therefore, acquisition. 1. Low Intrinsic Motivation Trinidadian interlocutors demonstrated low intrinsic motivation to acquire Spanish, with three participants noting that learning Spanish was “irrelevant” to the work context. While two participants revealed an interest in learning Spanish and participating in Hispanic culture, and even admitted to seeking Spanish learning materials, only one participant recognised a need for Spanish use in the workplace, citing the ability to “relate to co-workers and customers”. Hence, low intrinsic motivation impeded SLA. 2. Language shock and anxiety No participants exhibited language shock and only one participant experienced anxiety when speaking to native Spanish speakers due to the integrative motivation of the context which generally provided low anxiety. In spite of this, it did not promote SLA due to the overarching pragmatic factors and social dominance of English and Creole- predominant peers in the workplace. 3. Learner beliefs Trinidadians’ Spanish use and acquisition were generally limited by their beliefs. Every participant noted that using Spanish was not necessary and too time consuming in the workplace. One participant noted that Spanish is a difficult language (see Table 5 for attitudes to learning Spanish). Furthermore, participant beliefs about the efficacy of foreign language learning methods impacted their motivation to take advantage of learning opportunities in the workplace (see table 6). Lingo 43 Three participants identified foreign language classes as an effective method of language learning. In the informal language learning context of the workplace with inconsistent true peers, the needs of these learners are not necessarily being met, which inhibits SLA. Moreover, three participants cited consuming media in the target language as an effective method, a scenario which does not exist during the workday. Table 6 shows methods of foreign language learning among Trinidadian counterparts. Table 6 Showing Methods of Foreign Language Learning Which Trinidadian Participants Consider Effective Method of Learning a Kerwin Miranda Annette Nathalie Foreign Language 1. Taking classes ✓ ✓ ✓ 2. Speaking to native speakers ✓ ✓ ✓ of the TL 3. Immersion (living in ✓ ✓ country where the TL is spoken) 4. Listening to music and watching ✓ ✓ ✓ movies in the TL 4. Learning styles Lingo 44 Similarly, learning styles influence 2LLs’ desire to produce output and their interactions with native speakers of the TL (see table 7). Participants who identified as visual, reading and writing, kinaesthetic and solitary learners have needs which are not necessarily being met in the context of the workplace. While auditory and social learners’ needs are, in theory, met by the context, Venezuelans’ roles as inconsistent true peers were likely to inhibit acquisition in this case. The level of social interaction in Spanish, as restricted by the nature of the jobs being performed by Trinidadians as bartenders and supervisors in a very specific power dynamic, was also inhibitive to SLA. Table 7 Showing Learning Styles of Trinidadian Participants Learning Style Kerwin Miranda Annette Nathalie 1. Visual ✓ ✓ 2. Auditory ✓ ✓ ✓ 3. Reading and ✓ ✓ writing 4. Kinaesthetic ✓ ✓ 5. Social (working in ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ groups) 6. Solitary (individual ✓ ✓ learning) 6. Gender The findings of this study contradict Dörnyei and Clément’s theory of gender and SLA. While one female subject exhibited high levels of interest in the TL culture and positive attitudes towards Spanish, the other female participants did not. Moreover, Kerwin, a male, also exhibited high levels of interest and positive attitudes. Lingo 45 Conclusion Lingo 46 This study was exploratory in nature and sought to investigate acquisition of Spanish by Trinidadians due to workplace exposure to Venezuelan migrants in the food industry across varying contexts. It evaluated the workplace setting and the role of the minority L2 context in promoting acquisition of immigrant languages in the host community. Guided by Schumann’s acculturation theory, and pragmatic factors, the findings of this study showed that subjects’ acquisition of Spanish was limited to basic greetings and social formulae related to social interactions and tasks. Moreover, it was noted that the extent of acquisition was impacted by the quality and frequency of input provided by Venezuelan co-workers and the extent of acquirer output (which are impacted by pragmatic and acculturation factors and, to a lesser extent, individual factors). SLA is possible in the minority L2 context of the food industry of Trinidad, but this is limited by acculturation and pragmatic factors. Consequently, individual factors play a minor role. Limitations This study focused on sociocultural factors to account for the acquisition or non- acquisition of Spanish in the minority L2 context. In this context, there is no intrinsic motivation to produce language in a structured manner as noted in a classroom setting. Psycholinguistic and cognitive factors were also not examined. Moreover, the limited time frame in which this study was conducted must be considered. Low response rates by the population under study must be highlighted. Hence, every scenario existing in the food industry may not be represented. Situations where Venezuelans act as true peers were not surveyed and more contexts where there is a balanced lack of English and Spanish-speaking competencies in roles of non-dominance among Trinidadians could prove interesting. However, these cases may be rare because of the factor of irregular migration as the catalyst for SLA in Spanish Lingo 47 among Trinidadians rather than an active implementation policy for language acquisition by the government of Trinidad and Tobago. Recommendations The researcher recommends that purposive sampling to examine contexts in which interlocutors and peers have matched language proficiency, be conducted. This will elucidate acquisition occurring in contexts where Spanish language use may be more extensive due to survival needs, a context which was not surveyed in this study. Furthermore, gender may be a factor that warrants deeper examination in these contexts. Works Cited Lingo 48 Adamuti-Trache, Maria. “Language Acquisition Among Adult Immigrant in Canada: The Effect of Premigration Language Capital.” Adult Education Quarterly., vol. 63, no. 2, 2013, pp. 103–126., doi:10.1177/0741713612442804. Ali, Marsha Antoinette. “A Case Study of Teacher and Student Perceptions of the Factors Contributing to the De-Motivation of Form 5 Students Who Selected Spanish at the Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate (Csec) Level, at an Urban Secondary School in North Trinidad.” University of the West Indies, University of the West Indies, 2012, pp. 2–59. Ariza, Eileen N. “Resurrecting ‘Old’ Language Learning Methods to Reduce Anxiety for New Language Learners: Community Language Learning to the Rescue.” Bilingual Research Journal, vol. 26, no. 3, 2002, pp. 717–728., doi:10.1080/15235882.2002.10162586. Bahran, Taher, et al. “Second Language Acquisition in Informal Setting.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies, vol. 4, no. 8, 2014, pp. 1714–1723., doi:10.4304/tpls.4.8.1714-1723. Brown, H. Douglas. “The Optimal Distance Model of Second Language Acquisition.” TESOL Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 2, 1980, pp. 157–164., doi:https://www.jstor.org/stable/3586310. Canale, Michael, and Merril Swain. “Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing.” Applied Linguistics, vol. 1, no. 1, 1980, pp. 1–47. Çakır, İsmail. “Community Language Learning.” Approaches and Principles in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Education, by Çelik Servet, Egiten, 2014, pp. 1–472. Lingo 49 Casarez, Nora. “Factors Influencing the English Language Acquisition and Academic Achievement of Hispanic Immigrant High School Students.” Walden University, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2014, pp. 1–139. Celce-Murcia, Marianne, et al. “Communicative Competence: A Pedagogically Motivated Model with Content Specifications.” Issues in Applied Linguistics, vol. 6, no. 2, 1995, pp. 5–35., doi:https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2928w4zj. Churaman, Kurlene. “Investigating the Challenges Students Encounter in Studying the Spanish Language. A Case Study on a Named Secondary School in Trinidad and Tobago.” University of the West Indies , University of the West Indies , 2018, pp. 1–38. Clarke, Victoria, et al. “Thematic Analysis.” Qualitative Psychology: A Practical Guide to Research Methods, edited by Johnathan A Smith, 3rd ed., SAGE, 2015, pp. 222–248. Clément, Richard. “Second Language Proficiency and Acculturation: An Investigation of the Effects of Language Status and Individual Characteristics’.” Journal of Language and Social Psychology, vol. 5, no. 4, 1986, doi:10.1177/0261927X8600500403. Dietrich Jones, Natalie, and Ronald Skeldon. “The Venezuela–Trinidad and Tobago Migration Corridor.” Routledge Handbook of Migration And Development, edited by Tanja Bastia, vol. 1, Routeledge, 2019, pp. 492–500. Dörnyei, Zoltán, and Richard Clement. University of Hawai'i, 2011, pp. 399–432, Motivational Characteristics of Learning Different Target Languages: Results of a Nationwide Survey. Lingo 50 Flowerdew, John, and Lindsay Miller. “Social Structure and Individual Agency in Second Language Learning: Evidence From Three Life Histories.” Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, vol. 5, no. 4, 2008, pp. 201–224., doi:10.1080/15427580802286173. Gass, Susan M. Input, Interaction, and the Second Language Learner. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997. Gass, Susan, and Alison Mackey. “Sociolinguistics and Pragmatics-Based Research.” Data Elicitation for Second and Foreign Language Research, by Susan Gass and Alison Mackey, Routledge, 2011, pp. 129–147. Gass, Susan M., and Larry Selinker. Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2009. Heigham, Juanita, and Keiko Sakui. “Ethnography.” Qualitative Research in Applied Linguistics: A Practical Introduction, edited by Juanita Heigham and Robert A Coker, Palgrave Macmillan, 2009, pp. 91–111. Hoque, Enamul. “An Introduction to the Second Language Acquisition.” Language Acquisition: Publication of the Journal of EFL Education and Research (JEFLER), EDRC, 2017, pp. 1–23. Krashen, Stephen D. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Pergamon Press, 1981. Lambert, Wallace E. 1967. A social psychology of bilingualism. The Journal of Social Issues 23:91-109. Lingo 51 Lantolf, James P. “Knowledge of a Foreign Language in Teacher Education.” Alternative Approaches to Second Language Acquisition, edited by Dwight Atkinson, Routledge, 2011, pp. 24–47. Lantolf, James P., and Aneta Pavlenko. “Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Acquisition.” Annual Review of Applied Linguistics , vol. 15, 1995, pp. 108–124. “Looking Again At Non-Formal And Informal Education - Towards A New Paradigm.” Appeal Of Non Formal Education Paradigm: Looking Again At Non-Formal And Informal Education Towards A New Paradigm, by Alan Rogers, Center for Research in International Cooperation In Educational Development , University of Tsukuba, 2007, pp. 1–80. McLaughlin, Barry. Theories of Second Language Learning. Arnold, 1988. Mohan, Shiva. “A 'Migrant Registration Framework': Counting Venezuelan Immigrants in Trinidad & Tobago.” OxMo: Oxford Monitor of Forced Migration, OxMo: Oxford Monitor of Forced Migration, 21 Aug. 2019, www.oxforcedmigration.com/post/a- migrant-registration-framework-counting-venezuelan-immigrants-in-trinidad-tobago. Ohta, Amy Snyder. “Sociocultural Theory and the Zone of Proximal Development.” The Cambridge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, edited by Julia Herschensohn and Martha Young-Scholten, Cambridge University Press, 2013, pp. 648–669. Rampton, Ben. Crossing Language and Ethnicity among Adolescents. Vol. 1, Routledge, 1995. Schulz, Renate A. “Second Language Acquisition Theories and Teaching Practice: How Do They Fit?” The Modern Language Journal, vol. 75, no. 1, 1991, pp. 17–26., doi:https://www.jstor.org/stable/329831. Lingo 52 Schumann, John. “An Acculturation Model for Second Language Acquisition.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, vol. 7, no. 5, 1986, pp. 379–392., doi:10.1080/01434632.1986.9994254. Segalowitz, Norman, et al. “A Comparison of Spanish Second Language Acquisition in Two Different Learning Contexts: Study Abroad and the Domestic Classroom.” Frontiers The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, vol. 10, no. 1, 2004, pp. 1–18., doi:10.36366/frontiers.v10i1.130. Siegel, Jeff, and Michael H. Long. “Social Context.” The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, edited by Catherine J. Doughty , Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2003, pp. 178–223. Stauble, Ann-Marie E. “The Process of Decreolization: A Model For Second Language Development.” Language Learning, vol. 28, no. 1, July 1978, pp. 29–54. Swain, Merrill, and Sharon Lapkin. “Interaction and Second Language Learning: Two Adolescent French Immersion Students Working Togethe.” Modern Language Journal, vol. 82, no. 3, 1998, pp. 320–334., doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.1998.tb01209.x. Swain, Merrill. “Three Functions of Output in Second Language Learning.” Principle and Practice in Applied Linguistics: Studies in Honour of H. G. Widdowson , edited by G. Cook and B. Seidlhofer , Oxford University Press, 1995, pp. 124–144. Sudarsan, Desiree. “Issues Encountered In Studying Spanish As a Foreign Language in Trinidad.” University of the West Indies, University of the West Indies, 2017, pp. 1–41. Lingo 53 Takahashi, Satomi, and Alison Mackey. “Individual Learner Considerations in SLA and L2 Pragmatics.” The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition and Pragmatics, edited by Susan M. Gass, Routledge , 2019, pp. 429–443. Timpe-Laughlin, Veronika, and Alison Mackey. “Pragmatics Learning in the Workplace.” The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition and Pragmatics, edited by Susan M. Gass, Routledge, 2019, pp. 413–428. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. “United Nations International Migration 2019 Wallchart.” UN, 2019, pp. 1–2. un.org, www.un.org/development/desa/pd/sites/www.un.org.development.desa.pd/files/files/d ocuments/2020/Feb/un_2019_internationalmigration_wallchart.pdf. Van der Slik, Frans W.P., et al. “The Gender Gap in Second Language Acquisition: Gender Differences in the Acquisition of Dutch among Immigrants from 88 Countries with 49 Mother Tongues.” PLoS One, vol. 10, no. 11, 2015, pp. 1–22., doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0142056. Véronique, Georges Daniel, and Martha Young-Scholten. “Socialisation.” The Cambridge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, edited by Julia Herschensohn, Cambridge University Press, 2013, pp. 251–271. White, L. “Against Comprehensible Input: the Input Hypothesis and the Development of Second-Language Competence.” Applied Linguistics, vol. 8, no. 2, 1987, pp. 95–110., doi:10.1093/applin/8.2.95. Williams, Carol J. “Trinidad and Tobago Plans to Go Bilingual.” The Washington Post, The Washington Post, 25 Sept. 2005, Lingo 54 www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2005/09/25/trinidad-and-tobago-plans-to- go-bilingual/2b4fe86a-8f2c-4af2-8009-bf86f961a72c/. Xiangui, Zheng. “Learning Theories and Second Language Learning.” CELEA Journal, vol. 28, no. 5, 2005, pp. 120–127. Young, Marta Y. “Acculturation Attitudes and Second Language Proficiency.” University of Western Ontario, University of Western Ontario, 1986, pp. 1–81. Lingo 55 Appendix 1 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES ST. AUGUSTINE, TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO, WEST INDIES FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF MODERN LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTICS Telephone: (868) 662-2002 Ext. 83280/ 82623/ 82036/ 83868/ 82588/ 82488/ 82486 E-mail: mll.fhe@sta.uwi.edu Website: https://sta.uwi.edu/fhe/dmll/ INFORMED CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH “Informed consent is a decision to participate in research taken by a competent individual who has received all the information necessary to arrive at an informed decision. The individual is required to have understood the information, considered the information and to have arrived at the decision without coercion, undue influence inducement or intimidation.” Identification of Project: HUMN 3099 Caribbean Studies Project Title: “Language Learning in the Community Context: The Acquisition of Spanish Among Trinidadian Workers in the Food and Restaurant Industry.” Principal Researcher/s: SABRINA LINGO Purpose of the Research and Invitation to Participate: Purpose: To identify the elements of Spanish language restaurant and food industry workers in Trinidad are using and acquiring in work related settings Invitation: I would like to invite you to participate in the study. Sampling: All employees at R’s Fruit and Veg Mart Description of procedures: The researcher will observe participants’ interactions with their co-workers. Contribution expected from the participant: To agree to be observed and recorded during the work day. Risks and Discomforts: This study should not cause any risk or discomfort to the participants. Benefits: Lingo 56 Understanding which elements of Spanish are being used and acquired by Trinidadians in the food and restaurant industry due to the presence of Venezuelan migrants. Confidentiality: All the information retrieved will be kept confidential. The data will be anonymized (that means that the data will be treated in such a way that the identity of the participants will not be revealed). The only person who will have direct access to the data will be the researcher. The data will be reported in a final paper titled “Language Learning in the Community Context: The Acquisition of Spanish Among Trinidadian Workers in the Food and Restaurant Industry.” Freedom to Withdraw: Your participation in the study is voluntary and you are free to withdraw at any time if any problems occur or if you simply change your mind. You have the option to exclude from the study data obtained through your participation, should you decide to withdraw. Refusal to participate will not adversely affect your relationship with the researcher. Contact information of main researcher: SABRINA LINGO 868 355 3976 CONSENT AND SIGNATURE I confirm that the purpose of the research, the study procedures, and any possible risks or discomforts, as well as the possible benefits that I may receive by taking part in the study, have been explained to me. I further confirm that I have been provided with the telephone number of the Principal Investigator for contact in the case of an emergency. I have read this Consent Form and my signature below confirms that I am willing to take part in this study. Participant’s Name (print)_____________________________________________________ Participant’s Signature________________________________________________________ Date_____________________________________________________________________ _ RESEARCHERS’ STATEMENT AND SIGNATURE I have explained the purpose of the research, the study procedures, including those that are investigational, the possible risks and discomforts, and the potential benefits, and have answered all questions regarding the study to the best of my ability. In my opinion, the participant understands these issues and has voluntarily agreed to participate in the study. Name and Signature of Investigator obtaining Informed Consent: Lingo 57 SABRINA LINGO ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Date: March 8th, 2021 A copy of the signed Informed Consent Form must be left with each participant. Lingo 58 Appendix 2 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES ST. AUGUSTINE, TRINIDAD Y TOBAGO, WEST INDIES FACULTAD DE HUMANIDADES Y EDUCACIÓN DEPARTAMENTO DE IDIOMAS Y LINGÜÍSTICA Teléfono: (868) 662-2002 Ext. 83280/ 82623/ 82036/ 83868/ 82588/ 82488/ 82486 Correo electrónico : mll.fhe@sta.uwi.edu Sitio Web: https://sta.uwi.edu/fhe/dmll/ EL CONSENTIMIENTO INFORMADO PARA LA PARTICIPACIÓN EN LA INVESTIGACIÓN “El consentimiento informado es una decisión, tomada por una persona competente, para participar en una investigación, después de haber recibido toda la información necesaria para tomar una decisión informada. Es necesario que la persona comprenda la información y tome una decisión sin coerción, incentivos o intimidación”. Identificación del Proyecto: HUMN 3099 Caribbean Studies Project Título: “El aprendizaje de segundos idiomas en el contexto comunitario: un caso práctico de la adquisición de español por los empleados trinitenses en la industria alimentaria” Investigadora Principal: SABRINA LINGO Propósito de la Investigación e Invitación a Participar: Propósito: Identificar los elementos del idioma español que sean usados y adquiridos por los empleados de la industria alimentaria en Trinidad en situaciones laborales. Invitación: Me gustaría invitarle a participar en el estudio. Muestreo: Todos los empleados de R’s Fruit and Veg Mart Descripción de los métodos de investigación: La investigadora observará las interacciones de los participantes con sus compañeros durante el día de trabajo. Las Contribuciones del participante/ de la participante: Aceptar ser observado/a y grabado/a durante el día de trabajo. Los Riesgos e Incomodidades: Este estudio no implica ningún riesgo o malestar a los participantes. Lingo 59 Las Ventajas: Este estudio puede facilitar una mejor comprensión de los elementos de español que los empleados trinitenses en la industria alimentaria usan y aprenden a causa de la presencia de los inmigrantes venezolanos. Confidencialidad: Toda la información obtenida será tratada de manera confidencial. Los datos serán anonimizados (es decir, los datos serán tratados de tal forma que no se revelará la identidad de los participantes). La única persona que tendrá acceso directo a los datos será la investigadora. Los datos serán presentados en una tesis final titulada: “El aprendizaje de segundos idiomas en el contexto comunitario: un caso práctico de la adquisición de español por los empleados trinitenses en la industria alimentaria” Libertad para retirar del estudio: Su participación en este estudio es voluntaria y usted puede retirar en cualquier momento si surja algún problema o si simplemente cambie de opinión. Tiene la opción de excluir del estudio los datos obtenidos a través de su participación, en caso de que decida retirarse. No afectará negativamente su relación con la investigadora. Cómo contactar a la investigadora: SABRINA LINGO 1(868) 355 3976 CONSENTIMIENTO Y FIRMA Confirmo que se me ha explicado el propósito de la investigación, los procedimientos del estudio y los posibles riesgos o molestias, así como los posibles beneficios que podría recibir al participar en el estudio. Confirmo además que se me ha dado el número de teléfono de la investigadora para que pueda contactarle en caso de una emergencia. He leído este formulario de consentimiento y mi firma a continuación confirma que estoy dispuesto/a a participar en este estudio. Nombre del Participante/ de la Participante: _________________________________________ Firma del Participante/ de la Participante: _________________________________________ Fecha: ______________________________________________________________________ DECLARACIÓN Y FIRMA DE LA INVESTIGADORA He explicado el propósito de la investigación, los procedimientos del estudio, los posibles riesgos e incomodidades y los posibles beneficios, y he respondido a todas las preguntas relacionadas con el estudio lo mejor que he podido. En mi opinión, el participante comprende estos temas y ha decidido voluntariamente participar en el estudio. Lingo 60 Nombre y firma del investigador que ha obtenido el consentimiento informado: SABRINA LINGO ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Fecha: el 8 de marzo, 2021 Se debe dejar una copia del formulario de consentimiento informado firmado con cada participante. Lingo 61 Appendix 3 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES ST. AUGUSTINE, TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO, WEST INDIES FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF MODERN LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTICS Telephone: (868) 662-2002 Ext. 83280/ 82623/ 82036/ 83868/ 82588/ 82488/ 82486 E-mail: mll.fhe@sta.uwi.edu Website: https://sta.uwi.edu/fhe/dmll/ INFORMED CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH “Informed consent is a decision to participate in research taken by a competent individual who has received all the information necessary to arrive at an informed decision. The individual is required to have understood the information, considered the information and to have arrived at the decision without coercion, undue influence inducement or intimidation.” Identification of Project: HUMN 3099 Caribbean Studies Project Title: “Language Learning in the Community Context: The Acquisition of Spanish Among Trinidadian Workers in the Food and Restaurant Industry.” Principal Researcher/s: SABRINA LINGO Purpose of the Research and Invitation to Participate: Purpose: To identify which elements of Spanish language restaurant and food industry workers in Trinidad are using and acquiring in work related settings Invitation: I would like to invite you to participate in the study. Sampling: Two employees at each institution Description of procedures: The researcher will observe participants’ interactions with their co-workers as they carry out their duties. Semi-structured interviews will then be conducted with participants individually in the mother tongue of the participant. A short questionnaire will be administered to participants. Contribution expected from the participant: To agree to be observed and recorded during the work day, to agree to a semi-structured interview in his/her mother tongue and to fill out a short questionnaire. Risks and Discomforts: Apart from the time of the interviews and questionnaire, this study should not cause any risk or discomfort to the participants. Lingo 62 Benefits: Understanding which elements of Spanish are being used and acquired by Trinidadians in the food and restaurant industry due to the presence of Venezuelan migrants. Confidentiality: All the information retrieved will be kept confidential. The data will be anonymized (that means that the data will be treated in such a way that the identity of the participants will not be revealed). The only person who will have direct access to the data will be the researcher. The data will be reported in a final paper titled: “Language Learning in the Community Context: The Acquisition of Spanish Among Trinidadian Workers in the Food and Restaurant Industry.” Freedom to Withdraw: Your participation in the study is voluntary and you are free to withdraw at any time if any problems occur or if you simply change your mind. You have the option to exclude from the study data obtained through your participation, should you decide to withdraw. Refusal to participate will not adversely affect your relationship with the researcher. Contact information of main researcher: SABRINA LINGO 868 355 3976 CONSENT AND SIGNATURE I confirm that the purpose of the research, the study procedures, and any possible risks or discomforts, as well as the possible benefits that I may receive by taking part in the study, have been explained to me. I further confirm that I have been provided with the telephone number of the Principal Investigator for contact in the case of an emergency. I have read this Consent Form and my signature below confirms that I am willing to take part in this study. Participant’s Name (print)_____________________________________________________ Participant’s Signature________________________________________________________ Date_____________________________________________________________________ _ RESEARCHERS’ STATEMENT AND SIGNATURE I have explained the purpose of the research, the study procedures, including those that are investigational, the possible risks and discomforts, and the potential benefits, and have answered all questions regarding the study to the best of my ability. In my opinion, the participant understands these issues and has voluntarily agreed to participate in the study. Name and Signature of Investigator obtaining Informed Consent: Lingo 63 SABRINA LINGO ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Date: March 8th, 2021 A copy of the signed Informed Consent Form must be left with each participant. Lingo 64 Appendix 4 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES ST. AUGUSTINE, TRINIDAD Y TOBAGO, WEST INDIES FACULTAD DE HUMANIDADES Y EDUCACIÓN DEPARTAMENTO DE IDIOMAS Y LINGÜÍSTICA Teléfono: (868) 662-2002 Ext. 83280/ 82623/ 82036/ 83868/ 82588/ 82488/ 82486 Correo electrónico : mll.fhe@sta.uwi.edu Sitio Web: https://sta.uwi.edu/fhe/dmll/ EL CONSENTIMIENTO INFORMADO PARA LA PARTICIPACIÓN EN LA INVESTIGACIÓN “El consentimiento informado es una decisión, tomada por una persona competente, para participar en una investigación, después de haber recibido toda la información necesaria para tomar una decisión informada. Es necesario que la persona comprenda la información y tome una decisión sin coerción, incentivos o intimidación”. Identificación del Proyecto: HUMN 3099 Caribbean Studies Project Título: “El aprendizaje de segundos idiomas en el contexto comunitario: un caso práctico de la adquisición de español por los empleados trinitenses en la industria alimentaria” Investigadora Principal: SABRINA LINGO Propósito de la Investigación e Invitación a Participar: Propósito: Identificar los elementos del idioma español que sean usados y adquiridos por los empleados de la industria alimentaria en Trinidad en situaciones laborales. Invitación: Me gustaría invitarle a participar en el estudio. Muestreo: Dos empleados de cada establecimiento Descripción de los métodos de investigación: La investigadora observará las interacciones de los participantes con sus compañeros durante sus funciones de trabajo. Luego, la investigadora conducirá una entrevista semiestructurada en la lengua materna del/ de la participante. Las Contribuciones del participante/ de la participante: Aceptar ser observado/a y grabado/a durante sus funciones de trabajo; aceptar una entrevista semiestructurada en su lengua materna Lingo 65 Los Riesgos e Incomodidades: Aparte del tiempo de la entrevista, este estudio no implica ningún riesgo o malestar a los participantes. Las Ventajas: Este estudio puede facilitar una mejor comprensión de los elementos de español que los empleados trinitenses en la industria alimentaria usan y aprenden a causa de la presencia de los inmigrantes venezolanos. Confidencialidad: Toda la información obtenida será tratada de manera confidencial. Los datos serán anonimizados (es decir, los datos serán tratados de tal forma que no se revelará la identidad de los participantes). La única persona que tendrá acceso directo a los datos será la investigadora. Los datos serán presentados en una tesis final titulada: “El aprendizaje de segundos idiomas en el contexto comunitario: un caso práctico de la adquisición de español por los empleados trinitenses en la industria alimentaria” Libertad para retirar del estudio: Su participación en este estudio es voluntaria y usted puede retirar en cualquier momento si surja algún problema o si simplemente cambie de opinión. Tiene la opción de excluir del estudio los datos obtenidos a través de su participación, en caso de que decida retirarse. No afectará negativamente su relación con la investigadora. Cómo contactar a la investigadora: SABRINA LINGO 1(868) 355 3976 CONSENTIMIENTO Y FIRMA Confirmo que se me ha explicado el propósito de la investigación, los procedimientos del estudio y los posibles riesgos o molestias, así como los posibles beneficios que podría recibir al participar en el estudio. Confirmo además que se me ha dado el número de teléfono de la investigadora para que pueda contactarle en caso de una emergencia. He leído este formulario de consentimiento y mi firma a continuación confirma que estoy dispuesto/a a participar en este estudio. Nombre del Participante/ de la Participante: _________________________________________ Firma del Participante/ de la Participante: _________________________________________ Fecha: ______________________________________________________________________ DECLARACIÓN Y FIRMA DE LA INVESTIGADORA He explicado el propósito de la investigación, los procedimientos del estudio, los posibles riesgos e incomodidades y los posibles beneficios, y he respondido a todas las preguntas Lingo 66 relacionadas con el estudio lo mejor que he podido. En mi opinión, el participante comprende estos temas y ha decidido voluntariamente participar en el estudio. Nombre y firma del investigador que ha obtenido el consentimiento informado: SABRINA LINGO ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Fecha: el 8 de marzo, 2021 Se debe dejar una copia del formulario de consentimiento informado firmado con cada participante. Lingo 67 Appendix 5 Interview with Trinidadian interlocutors Hello, my name is Sabrina Lingo and I am a final year student at the University of the West Indies. I am currently completing my thesis and I am investigating the acquisition and use of Spanish by Trinidadian employees working alongside Venezuelan migrants in the food and restaurant industry. I would like to seek your consent to participate in my primary research of my study. Please note that this will consist of an audio recorded interview conducted in English. In cases where questions are unclear, clarification would be provided. Please answer honestly and thoroughly. All information provided will be anonymous and confidential, as a pseudonym will be given to represent your contributions. Thank you for your time. 1. What is your name? 2. How old are you? 3. What is your occupation? 4. What are your job duties as a/an (insert occupation here)? 5. What is your background in Spanish? Have you ever taken classes/ studied it in school? 6. Can you give me an example of your job routine? 7. How long have you worked at this establishment? 8. Are you interested in learning Spanish for communication with your Spanish- speaking colleagues? Lingo 68 9. Is there any professional incentive at your job for learning/ using Spanish? 10. Have there ever been any Venezuelan/ Spanish-speaking clients who have required you to communicate in Spanish because they did not know English? 11. How do you feel when your Spanish-speaking colleagues/ workmates use Spanish in your presence at the workplace? 12. How often do you communicate with your Venezuelan co-workers? Can you explain the reasons for this communication (work-related, social interactions)? Does this communication take place in English or in Spanish? 13. You said that your job duties are…. Among these tasks, which of these represent an area of vocabulary that you have consciously used? / Which of these tasks have required you to communicate with your Spanish-speaking colleagues? 14. Did this communication take place in English or in Spanish? Can you give me an example of what was said? 15. Have there been opportunities for social interactions with Venezuelan employees/co- workers? 16. Are there settings where you are encouraged to use Spanish at work? / Are there settings where your employer encourages your use of Spanish? 17. How would you describe the attitude of your employer to the use of Spanish at your establishment? / How do you feel about the use of Spanish at your establishment? 18. Can you describe an interaction in Spanish that you would have had with Venezuelans? 19. On which of the following occasions do you use Spanish at work? Lingo 69 a. Speaking to a Spanish-speaking person b. To replace an English word that a Spanish-speaking colleague does not know/ understand c. To paraphrase in a communication situation where your Venezuelan colleagues’ knowledge of English is limited? d. To share your language or culture with Venezuelan colleagues e. To participate/ find out about the culture of Venezuelan colleagues? f. Other 20. How have you responded to your colleagues ‘spontaneous use of Spanish in the workplace? 21. How have you responded to your colleagues’ use of Spanish in strategic ways to facilitate comprehension? 22. If you have ever used Spanish in strategic ways to facilitate comprehension, how have your Venezuelan colleagues responded? 23. Do you interact with Venezuelans outside of work? How often? Lingo 70 Appendix 6 Preguntas de entrevista con los empleados venezolanos Hola, mi nombre es Sabrina Lingo y soy una estudiante de tercer año de UWI. Para mi tesis, estoy investigando el uso y la adquisición de español por los empleados trinitenses en la industria alimentaria gracias a la presencia de inmigrantes venezolanos. Me gustaría solicitar su consentimiento para participar en la investigación principal de mi estudio. Tenga en cuenta que esto consistirá en una entrevista grabada en audio realizada en inglés. Entonces, le voy a preguntar sobre sus interacciones con sus compañeros trinitenses. En los casos en que las preguntas no estén claras, se proporcionará una aclaración. Por favor responda honesta y detalladamente. Toda la información proporcionada será anónima y confidencial, ya que se le dará un seudónimo para representar sus contribuciones. Gracias por su tiempo. 1. ¿Cómo se llama usted? 2. ¿Cuántos años tiene usted? 3. ¿Desde hace cuánto tiempo usted trabaja aquí? 4. ¿Cuál es su trabajo? 5. ¿Cuáles son las tareas que usted debe hacer como (nombre de la ocupación)? 6. ¿Cuál es su nivel de inglés? ¿Ha tomado cursos? 7. Usted me ha dicho que hace ……. como tareas del trabajo. ¿Cuáles de estas tareas representan una fuente de vocabulario en español que usted ha usado? ¿Es decir, cuáles tareas le permiten usar vocabulario en español? Lingo 71 8. ¿Puede darme un ejemplo de algunas instrucciones/ expresiones que ha usado en español durante el día de trabajo? 9. ¿Alguna vez había oportunidades para interacciones sociales con sus compañeros trinitenses? 10. ¿Existen situaciones donde se anima su uso de español/ le anima a que hable en español en su trabajo? 11. ¿Cómo describiría la actitud de sus empleadores en cuanto al uso de español en este establecimiento? 12. ¿Le interesa enseñar español a sus compañeros trinitenses? ¿De una escala de 1 a 10, cuanto seria su nivel de interés? 13. ¿Puede describir una interacción en español que usted ha tomado con un cliente trinitense/ un miembro del público trinitense? 14. ¿En cuanto a las situaciones siguientes, cuáles son las que le permiten usar español durante su trabajo? a. Para hablar español con otro hispanohablante b. Para reemplazar una palabra que no conoce en inglés c. Para parafrasear en una situación comunicativa en donde su conocimiento en inglés es limitado d. Para compartir información sobre su idioma y cultura con sus compañeros trinitenses e. Otra situación Lingo 72 15. ¿Cómo reaccionan sus compañeros trinitenses cuando usa español espontáneamente en el trabajo? 16. ¿Cómo reaccionan sus compañeros trinitenses cuando usa español estratégicamente para facilitar la comprensión en el trabajo? 17. ¿Hay clientes hispanohablantes con quienes se debe usar español porque no hablan inglés? 18. ¿Hay clientes trinitenses que intentan hablar español con usted? 19. ¿Hay clientes trinitenses que le exigen hablar inglés porque no hablan español? 20. ¿Cómo se siente/ se sentiría cuando/ si sus compañeros trinitenses usan español en su presencia? Lingo 73 Appendix 7 Discourse Completion Test This is a Discourse Completion Test. However, it is not a test. I will give you a list of situations and you must respond appropriately in Spanish. If you do not know how to respond to these situations in Spanish, please indicate this. Greetings and Social Formulae 1. It is 9 am and you have just arrived at work. You see your Venezuelan co- worker. How do you greet him/her? 2. It is time for lunch and you see that your Venezuelan co-worker is about to eat. What do you say to him/her? 3. It is 10 pm and you are ready to leave work. What do you say to your Venezuelan co-worker? 4. You are ready to leave work. What do you say to your Venezuelan co-worker? 5. You see your Venezuelan co-worker after the weekend and you would like to ask her/him how she/he is doing. What do you say? 6. Your face mask falls and your Venezuelan co-worker picks it up for you. What do you say to him/her? Interrogatives 7. You would like to know where the beer/bags/garbage/plate is. What do you ask your Venezuelan co-worker? Lingo 74 8. You would like to know how to say flour in Spanish. What do you say to your Venezuelan co-worker? Imperatives and Related Function Words 9. You would like your co-worker to help you with a task. What do you say to him/her? 10. Your co-worker is at the register but you would like him/her to come to the kitchen area to assist you. What do you say to him/her? 11. Your Venezuelan co-worker is currently performing a task but you require his/her assistance. You would like your co-worker to perform the task more quickly so that she can assist you. What do you say to her? 12. Your co-worker is tending to a customer and the music at the restaurant/store is loud. You want to get her attention. What do you say? Task specific Vocabulary, High Frequency Structures: Nouns, Terms of Address and Diminutive 13. A Spanish-speaking customer comes to the restaurant. How do you address him? 14. A Spanish-speaking customer asks you if you speak Spanish. How do you respond? 15. A Spanish-speaking customer says something to you in Spanish but you do not understand. What do you say? Lingo 75 16. A Spanish-speaking customer says something to you in Spanish and you understand. What do you say? Lingo 76 Appendix 8 Prueba de Completar un Discurso (Discourse Completion Test) Esta es una “prueba de completar un discurso”. A pesar del nombre, no es una prueba. Solo voy a darle algunas situaciones y usted debe decirme lo usted diría en estas situaciones de manera natural. Si usaría inglés en esta situación, por favor responda en inglés. Si usaría español, responda en español. Saludos 1. Son las 9 de la mañana y acaba de llegar al trabajo. Ve a su compañero/a trinitense. ¿Qué es lo que le dice? 2. Es la hora del almuerzo y ve que su compañero/a está a punto de comer. ¿Qué es lo que le dice? 3. Son las 10 de la noche y está listo/a para salir del trabajo. ¿Qué dice a su compañero/a trinitense? 4. Está listo/a para salir del trabajo. ¿Qué dice a su compañero/a trinitense? 5. Ve a su compañero/a después del fin de semana. Quiere saber cómo va. ¿Qué le dice? 6. Se cayó su mascarilla y su compañero/a la recoge para usted. ¿Qué le dice? Interrogaciones 7. Quiere saber dónde están las botellas de jugo. ¿Qué pregunta a su compañero/a? 8. Usted olvidó cómo decir “bolsa” en inglés. ¿Qué es lo que dice a su compañero/a? El Imperativo Lingo 77 9. Quiere que su compañero/a le ayude. ¿Qué le dice? 10. Su compañero/a está detrás de la caja registradora, pero quiere que venga al pasillo. ¿Qué le dice? Interjecciones 11. Su compañero/a está hablando con un cliente. Quiere llamar su atención. ¿Qué dice? Vocabulario Relacionado a Tareas, Estructuras Comunes, Sustantivos,Términos Usados Para Dirigirse a La Gente y el Apócope 12. Un cliente hispanohablante viene a la tienda. ¿Cómo llamaría al cliente? 13. Un cliente hispanohablante viene a la tienda y quiere que le traiga una botella de agua. Usted está ocupado/a y quiere que su compañero/a atienda al cliente. ¿Qué dice a su compañero? 14. Un cliente trinitense le pregunta si habla inglés. ¿Qué le dice? 15. Un cliente trinitense le dijo algo, pero no entendió. ¿Qué le dice? Lingo 78 Appendix 9 Questionnaire Hello, my name is Sabrina Lingo and I am a final year student at the University of the West Indies. As part of my BA research project, I am investigating “Language Learning in the Community Context: The Acquisition of Spanish Among Trinidadian Workers in the Food and Restaurant Industry “This questionnaire consists of eight questions and will take no longer than 10 minutes to complete. Please note that all responses will remain anonymous and confidential, and use of all data collected will be limited to this research, as authorised by the University of the West Indies. Thank you for your participation. 1. On a scale of 1 to 10, how interested are you in learning about Venezuelan and Hispanic culture? Please explain briefly. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 2. Are you interested in learning Spanish? Why/ why not? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Lingo 79 3. Please select all statements which describe your views towards Spanish. a. I would like to learn Spanish but I do not have the time b. I would like to learn Spanish but I cannot afford classes c. I do not wish to learn Spanish as it is a difficult language d. I do not wish to learn Spanish because it is not relevant to the Trinidadian context e. Other ………………………………………………………………………….... 4. Please select any of the following statements with which you agree. Select all which apply. a. My knowledge of Spanish is limited so I don’t have the time on the job to use it b. My knowledge of Spanish is limited and speaking to a native speaker makes me anxious c. I am afraid of making mistakes and being judged or laughed at so I choose not to use Spanish. d. I would like to learn Spanish but on my own (learning on my own time online) 5. When you hear your Venezuelan co-worker speaking in Spanish and you do not understand what is being said, what do you do? Select all which apply. a. Ask him/her for clarification of the meaning of what was said Lingo 80 b. Try to search the meaning of the word online c. Ask him/her to speak in English d. Ignore what is being said in Spanish 6. Has your exposure to Spanish inspired you to seek Spanish language learning materials on your own (books, movies, songs)? a. Yes b. No 7. In which of the following situations do you learn best? Select all which apply. a. Using visual and graphical representations of information (arrows, charts, diagrams) b. Listening to a concept being explained c. Reading information and taking notes d. Taking a hands-on approach i.e drawing, building, putting something together by trial and error e. Working in groups f. Working alone/ individually Lingo 81 8. In your opinion, what is the best way to learn a foreign language? Select all which apply. a. Taking classes b. Speaking to native speakers of that language c. Living in a country where the language is spoken d. Listening to music and watching movies in the target language