Adolescent Male Survivability in Jamaica The Ja maica Ado les cent Re pro duc tive Health Ac tiv ity (Youth.now) is a five-y ear proj ect funded by U.S. Agency for In ter na tional De vel op ment (USAID) Ja maica Mis sion un der Con tract No. 532-C-00-00-00003-00. Youth.now is im ple mented on be half of the Min is try of Health (Ja maica) by the Fu tures Group In ter na tional in col labo ra tion with the Mar ga ret San ger Cent er In ter na tional (MSCI) and Dun lop Corbin Com mu ni ca tions (DCC). Herbert Gayle December 2002 Ministry of Health The Jamaica Adolescent Reproductive Health Project (Youth.now) 2-4 King Street (5th floor) Kingston Jamaica, W.I. Tel: 876-948-2149, 2151 e-mail: youth.now@kasnet.com Male Survivability Acknowledgments Special Thanks to Peisha Bryan, Andrew Grant and Sherrian Gray who served as research assistants on this endeavor. Thanks to the kind staff of the various branches of the network of libraries on the Mona Campus, University of the West Indies. Thanks also to the staff of Youth.now, especially Pauline Russell- Brown, and to the reviewers and editors, including Karen Hardee and Judy Goldman, who contributed greatly to the refinement of the final draft. 1 Male Survivability 2 Male Survivability Summary For far too long, men had been corroborated; fresh theses are raised forsecondary, even coincidental, subjects examination. of analysis in gender-based studies, particularly those focused on Reproduc- Among the challenges raised were tive Health and Sexuality. By and large they concerns regarding the status quo of had been studied as contributors to or gender programs. The review concludes directly responsible for the challenges that single gender programs have been faced by women, or as the means to the counterproductive to developmental well being of women and children. targets for either gender, and calls for appropriate support systems that are need Recent studies are gradually transforming based rather than gender focused. the thesis and research methodology, with the result that men are being viewed as an This needs based approach, particularly if important subject of analysis in their own applied to education should be right. This Review, pulling from existing implemented concurrent with re- studies of this type, analyses the life socialization programs for those who chances of the adolescent male in the contribute to the marginalization of the challenging socio economic and cultural male in the educational system, the review environment of Jamaica. The study seeks to concludes. For the purposes of this review, highlight and clarify critical issues that this would mean working with the boys as could be instructive for meaningful policy well as their families simultaneously in and program discussions. In the process, order to ensure that boys are released into foundational assumptions that have the work force later; are properly trained instructed the gender paradigm have been and allowed to enjoy their childhood. In challenged; some have been this regard, the family emerges in this 3 Male Survivability paper as one of the key agents for bringing media. The review concludes that the multi about this re-socialization due to its agency collaboration united with the media significant role in shaping the life of youth. would prove to be powerful agents of transformation. The review recommends as its first pillar for reform, the development of a systemic Key Findings approach to delaying the entry of young males into the labor market, while Overall, there was a paucity of research on qualifying them for their social and adolescent males, resulting in information professional roles. Proposals to make gaps, some critical for policy and program schools more attractive for boys are offered development. However, the existing as an important plank in this objective. The information provided valuable signposts review recommends curricula re-design in for this comprehensive literature review, line with the needs of the labor market and and has been organized into key discussion in line with the technical predilections of points that are high impact areas for male male youth. It also addresses the current survivability. These include employment, methods employed to teach boys in order education, crime and violence, substance to remove psychological barriers to male abuse, as well as masculinity, sexuality and achievement including low expectation by reproductive health. Some of the key teachers. findings emerging from these studies, and which were the building blocks for this The second pillar of reform concerns high paper’s recommendations follow: risk and life threatening issues facing adolescent boys, including neglect, • The adolescent/young ‘baby father’ violence, drug abuse and poor sexual was ranked second on a scale of conduct. The review identifies the emerging difficulty of survival behind the ‘baby issue of sexual abuse of boys as largely mother’, but the male got less help ignored and under represented, and than the female and was perceived proposes specially tailored programs to as being able to handle himself. help victims. As a support • Socialization of boys to prove they recommendation, the review advocates for are powerful and in charge may lead gender equal enforcement of child them to make irresponsible sexual prostitution laws to protect not only girls but decisions, get involved in violent boys as well. activities, and attend school poorly. The review suggests that this and other • Families are more likely to support processes of change should be managed girls than boys of the same age and by an alliance of concerned agencies and to help them acquire basic skills civil society, backed by and involving the before entering the work force. 4 Male Survivability • Unemployed male youth are more male youth against other likely than females forced to join the adolescents. labor force “below the radar”, i.e., • The don can be a forceful agent of the ‘hustlers’ and’ jugglers’. socialization in the life of poor inner- • An inner-city male youth with five city youth. CXCs is often relegated to menial • Society has made drugs more jobs due to area stigma. However, available to boys. area stigma does not affect females in the same way. • Many youth have already initiated sex by the time of introduction of family • Girls may outnumber but they do not life education. necessarily outperform boys in the educational system. These findings will prove instructive for • Boys constitute the majority of the out additional research to plug the gaps and to of school population and were less lay the foundation for meaningful literate than girls in the same intervention. As such, this review does not category. position its conclusions as conclusive for • Males are disadvantaged in the policy and program development. Rather, classroom, and this translates into it seeks to lay a foundation for the kind of higher benefits for girls than for boys. interventions that would enhance life chances of the young male, as well as • One-fifth the perpetrators of crime impact gender relations in a mutually and violence in Jamaica are 20 years reinforcing manner. of age and younger; of this number, the vast majority are committed by 5 Male Survivability 6 Male Survivability Table of Contents Page Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11 Chapter 1 A Discussion of Adolescent Male Survivability - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 21 Chapter 2 Adolescent Male Involvement in the Economy - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 31 Chapter 3 Adolescent Males and the Education System - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 47 Chapter 4 Crime and Violence - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 63 Chapter 5 Patterns of Substance Use and Abuse among Adolescent Males- - - - - - - - 87 Chapter 6 Masculinity, Sexuality and Reproductive Health - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 93 Chapter 7 Summary and Recommendations- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 119 Glossary of Terms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 130 Bibliography - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 131 Tables 1.1 Ranks and Scores of Difficulty of Survival by Groups, 1996 - - - - - - - - - 24 2.1 The Labor Force, by Sex, for Jamaica: 1999 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 33 2.2 Labor Force Participation Rate of Adolescents Ages 14 – 19 years old, by Sex for Jamaica: 1998 and 1999- - - - - - - - - 34 7 Male Survivability 2.3 Male and Female Adolescents Ages 14 – 19 Years Old as a Percent of the Labor Force for Jamaica: 1999 - - - - - - - - - - - - 35 2.4 The Labor Force by Comparison of Adolescent Males and Females, Ages 14 – 19 for Jamaica: 1998/1999- - - - - - - - - - - - 35 2.5 Labor Force Ages 14 – 19 by Two-Year Age Groups for Jamaica: 1998/1999- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 36 2.6 Unemployed Labor Force, by Main Means of Support for Young People ages 14 – 24 for Jamaica: 1998/1999 - - - - - - - - - - - 37 3.1 Primary and Secondary Enrolment by Sex, 1991- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 50 3.2 Gender Biases in CXC Subject Areas and Number Males Sitting the Exams, 1993 – 1996 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 53 3.3 Gender Biases in CXC Subjects, and Number of Females Sitting the Exams, 1993 – 1996 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 54 3.4 University of the West Indies Graduates by Sex and Class of Degree, 1990 – 1998 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 56 3.5 Gender Difference in Perception of School Practices - - - - - - - - - - - - 58 3.6 Proportion of Boys and Girls by Streams - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 59 4.1 Total Number of Major Crimes Reported by Offence Type and Corresponding Year, for the period, 1995 – 2000 - - - - - - - - - 66 4.2 Number of Civilians Shot and Killed by Police, 1983 – 2000 - - - - - - - - - 67 4.3 Number of Murders reported Island-wide by Administrative Division, 1 January to 27 September 1997, compared to 1 January to 27 September 1998 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 69 4.4 Arrest for Major Crimes, by Age and Type, for 1996 and 1997 - - - - - - - - 70 4.5 Numbers of Males and Females in Prison for various sentence lengths: 2000- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 72 4.6 Reasons for which Male and Female Juveniles (under age 17) Appeared before the Courts: 2000 - - - - - - - - - - - - 73 4.7 Total Number of Teenagers (Ages 12 – 19) Arrested for Major Crimes in Jamaica: 1992 – 1999 - - - - - - - - - - - - 73 8 Male Survivability 5.1 Sex of post primary students who ever used tobacco in percent for Jamaica: 1987 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 90 5.2 Current young smokers, by sex, for Jamaica: 1987 - - - - - - - - - - - - 90 5.3 Lifetime and current use of various substances among students of Grades 9, 11 and 13, by sex, for Jamaica: 1997 - - - - - - - - - 91 6.1 First sexual intercourse, by age of first partner, for young males in Jamaica: 1997 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 104 6.2 First sexual intercourse, by age of first partner, for young females in Jamaica: 1997 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 104 6.3 Adolescents’ (Ages 11 – 14 years) most common response to the item, “The most important thing I know about sex I learned from …” , by Sex, for selected sites in Jamaica: 1998 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 106 6.4 Preferred source of information on Family Life Education topics for young women and men, aged 15 – 24 years, for Jamaica: 1997 (in percent) - - - - - - - - - - - 107 6.5 Contraceptive use at first sexual intercourse among adolescents ages 11 – 14 years, for selected sites in Jamaica: 1997 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 108 Box Illustrations 1.1 Fact Sheet on Jamaican youth at risk - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 16 2.0 School enrolment for both sexes: Ages 3 – 24 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 49 3.0 The street corner society - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 115 Flow Charts 1.1 Life prospects of a male youth - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 25 Life prospects of a female youth - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 26 9 Male Survivability 10 Male Survivability INTRODUCTION Men: Under-researched, Misunderstood 11 Male Survivability 12 Male Survivability “Men – are they bad or hopelessly bad?”1 In 1993 the largest study ever done in the Jamaica; and Tony Whitehead’s 1978Caribbean on male socialization com- thesis, Men, Family and Family Planning: A menced with funding from UNICEF. It Male Perception on Performance in a emerged out of a deep concern that males Jamaican Sugartown. The fact is that prior were being marginalized, especially in the to the 1980s, gender studies in Jamaica education system. This had come two years tended not to treat men as the unit of after Errol Miller (1986) published a second analysis. The work of Tony Whitehead and edition of his well-debated thesis on the others who took such an approach was Marginalization of the Black Jamaican more an exception to the rule. Prior to the Male. The Gender Socializa- tion Project, “Miller debate,” which commenced in the as it was called, carried three phases and 1980s, male perspectives in gender studies ran for five years. It covered five countries, were at best afforded a chapter or section but with a special emphasis on Jamaica, in the works of Jamaican scholars. where the only inner city community was studied. Prior to this study, very little effort According to Patricia Mohammed in her was made to understand Caribbean males, discussion of the history of feminism in the and, bluntly speaking, a number of issues Caribbean, the popular notion was that have been raised concerning most of the Caribbean women had always been earlier literature. Some of the very early liberated. The early emphasis of the works in gender in Jamaica included Edith feminist movement was on improving Clarke’s My Mother Who Fathered Me women’s access to such amenities as (1957); Stycos and Back’s 1964 pioneer education and political rights. Not until the work, The Control of Human Fertility in 1970s did the feminist stance in the 1A question asked by a young man during the discussion of a presentation at the International Fatherhood Conference, New York. May 2000. 13 Male Survivability Caribbean turn towards challenging the which men are discussed, often as existing status quo and the status of men problems or as contributors to women’s within Caribbean society. The movement inability to make decisions regarding became more militant in the 1980s when, reproductive health, or as directly due to structural adjustment, the plight of responsible for the hazards associated with women became acute. As Mohammed female reproduction. Dixon-Mueller (1995) explained however, despite being (1993) acknowledged that contraceptives influenced by feminism in developed were seen first as a source of liberation for countries, feminism in the region had to women – liberating their bodies from the relate to the fact that colonization and control of nature and more importantly racism had affected black men and women from the control of men. The paradox alike in the region and that there was though is that while liberating women, urgent need for both men and women to contraceptives afforded men unlimited work together. It is not surprising, sexual access to their partners while not therefore, that the 1990s saw a change in having the trouble of worrying about how the stance of scholars of gender to to prevent unwanted pregnancies. acknowledge that there is a connection Feminists later interpreted this as men once between the plight of poor men and that of again having control as they could now be their poor female counterparts. sexually irresponsible and blame the consequences of their actions – unwanted The problem of men being under- pregnancies – on women. Feminists were researched and misunderstood is not also concerned that men in policy-making peculiar to the Caribbean region. Much of positions were more concerned about the North American literature, especially reproductive health as a population control that written by feminist scholars, has measure rather than as an individual, presented male behavior as bad but autonomous act of empowerment for somewhat repairable, and thus a great women. deal of effort has been spent, on attempting to change male behavior using It has long been recognized that men stand pre-set and subjective frames without first to benefit immensely from reproductive understanding men. health interventions. Banks and Banks (1964) were lauded by Dixon-Mueller The most objective research efforts focused (1993) for highlighting this reality. on men have been in the area of economic Nonetheless, relatively few attempts have activities. Studies in the area of male been made to understand how men view sexuality and reproductive health have their reproductive health. Very few scholars been largely problematic. The unit of have tried to avoid treating men as analysis has always been women. Many of anything but a means to an end – the end these studies often include a section in 14 Male Survivability being the well-being of women and they do certainly shapes the direction the children. What is the logic for treating society goes. To put this in Giddens’ males as the focus of a comprehensive structural frame,2 youth transform the very research effort and attempting to engine of the society whilst society understand them with an open approach? constrains or shapes their behavior. Erik First, men need to have their side of the Erikson (1968) has outlined and explained story told as to why they behave the way many of the dilemmas of this period and they do. They know this story better than the depth of support that the adolescent any other group. Secondly, men participate needs to wrestle with the problems of in reproduction and make decisions that identity and insecurity that come with them. affect their families, communities and Blank (2000) rightly claimed that Jamaican societies whether or not we understand adolescents are at immense risk, most them well. Rather than stress the negative lacking the support and guidance from consequences of male behavior, it is better family, schools and society needed to to design research to gather information ensure a smooth transition through from which to construct programs to adolescence. Blank described youth at risk educate men as to how best they can as one of the most pressing concerns of the change the practices that jeopardize government, civil society, and the themselves, their women and their international community working in children. Such research should also Jamaica. She described the problem as highlight and develop those good practices complex, caused by a multitude of in which men have engaged. It is laudable underlying factors that affect Jamaican that a few recent studies (including children and adolescents at various Chevannes and Gayle 2000 which was developmental stages. Blank also commissioned by PAHO) have attempted presented five interrelated issues worth to address the study of men from the noting: perspective that men are sufficiently important as a unit of analysis. This is in 1. Poor quality of education and high fact the only ethical manner in which to rates of attrition from school treat a subject of study. 2. Lack of employment opportunities 3. Poor reproductive health and high Youth rates of teenage pregnancy Youth are an integral part of society. 4. Unstable home environments, poor Whatever is happening in the wider society parenting, lack of supervision and will have an impact on them, and whatever guidance 2See Giddens (1984). 15 Male Survivability 5. High levels of crime and violence, Adolescent Males including domestic violence and sexual abuse. “Young men are the most powerful group in a society. Sometimes I wonder if they know Blank’s rationale for stressing the need for how powerful they are, or in fact if the urgent focus on the youth of Jamaica is Authorities know this fact. The young men summarized in Box 1. can destroy this city and nation or they can make it into a place people crave to visit.” 3 Box 1: Fact Sheet on Jamaican youth at Risk Everyone knows about the power and • 25% of all Jamaicans are between the ages of 12 and 24 potential of young men in this country, but • 26% of Jamaicans living in poverty are between the very few groups target them as the force of ages of 12 and 24 change. Groups such as Children First, • Over one third of all young people between 15 and Area Youth Foundation, Fathers 16 are no longer enrolled in school: over 60% are out of school by age 18 Incorporated, and Youth.now are more the • 46% of youth between the ages of 14 and 19, and exception than the rule. It is most interesting 30% of youth between the ages of 20 and 24 are that a number of traditional female unemployed institutions have come to recognize that for • 30% of all births are to teenage girls. Every year more than 14,000 babies are born to teenagers, too long the society has ignored young and teenage fertility rates are increasing men and their plight. In the past few years • The number of reported new HIV infections among we have seen moderate to dramatic adolescents has doubled each year since 1995 changes in the way female programs are • Over half of all major crimes are committed by youth (mostly males), and 30% of inmates sentenced to run. Probably the most interesting case adult correctional facilities are between the ages of here is the move made by the Women’s 17 and 24 Centre of Jamaica Foundation a few years Source: Blank, Lorraine, Youth-at-Risk-Note, December 2000 ago to include a programme for fathers of young babies. Today the program is called Blank (2000) was correct in recognizing ‘Men at Risk’ and includes not only young that the most vulnerable youth are the fathers but also adolescent males who poor. Even among the poor, the largest recognize the need for guidance or who group of vulnerable youth at risk is those simply need to talk. below age 19. As the 1998 Survey of Living Conditions (PIOJ and STATIN, 1999) Chevannes (2001), Levy et al. (2001), and showed, despite the significant reduction in Brown and Chevannes (1998) illustrate an national poverty from 35.2 percent in 1992 interesting paradox: Despite the obvious to 15.9 percent in 1998, the age structure potential and power of adolescent males of the poor remains unchanged with more and the lack of support facilities that than half in the 0-18 age group. suggests they are without needs, young 3Professor Barry Chevannes speaking at the National Peace Conference held at Craig Town in November 1999. 16 Male Survivability males are in fact more vulnerable than adolescent? What price tag do you put on their female counterparts to the challenges the knowledge of surviving on the streets? of adolescence. Maybe the best we can do is to employ them to guide those who have not yet “Only in the case of sexual abuse are black crossed the pit of adolescence. And even so adolescent females in this city (London) we most often prefer to employ persons with more vulnerable than adolescent males. degrees who will have to be taught by the Compared to teenage girls, adolescent very same boys who did not qualify to do males are more likely something considered productive.”4 • To be outnumbered and out- performed in school The situation for black adolescent males inLondon seems to be quite similar to that of • To be physically abused at school the Jamaican male youth. It is important to and home note also that Jamaican adolescent males • To be on the street and out of school are disproportionately “below the radar” • To experience domestic accidents and overwhelmingly in crisis in London. • To experience violence and other This was clearly brought out in the such trauma presentation from which the statement above was taken. All adolescent males do • To use harmful drugs not have the same experiences. In London, • To commit suicide – and not just black, and to a lesser extent Asian male attempt to do so youth face more of a crisis than their white • Not to be adopted but remain in ‘safe counterparts. In Jamaica, like in most other houses’ countries in the West, the problems • Not to receive support from parents, experienced by adolescent males relatives, educators, agency regarding survivability are differentially personnel distributed along lines of class and or color/race. The lower the stratum to which • To be below the radar, unseen, the male youth belong, the more unnoticed, unattended exacerbated their problems. And yet, if they survive, the lessons they It is commendable that a number of have to teach are priceless. Then again, scholars have come to recognize the sadly sometimes society does not know how importance of focusing on adolescent to value the wealth of the knowledge the males. An understanding of their youth have. How do you put a value on the perceptions and behavior at this stage can complex matter of staying alive as a male certainly help us plan for a future of which 4”Below the Radar”, paper presented by Patrick Lewis, Director of the Social Inclusion Unit, Brent, London and Chairman of BEARS Youth Challenge, at the Accessing Hard to Reach Youth Seminar, June 18, 2001, College of North West London. 17 Male Survivability they will still be a part. Information on male Chapter 3: Adolescent Males and the youth survivability, socialization, sexuality Educational System and reproductive health in Jamaica can be best described as insufficient. There is Much effort is spent in this chapter to clearly a need for more detailed, especially examine the extent to which adolescent qualitative studies that will yield material of males are marginalized within the the quality necessary for policy formation educational system. The debate on whether and action regarding youth development. or not males are out-numbered and out- Nonetheless, it is only logical that we begin performed in schools is given full attention, by pulling together and discussing the and the recommendations available in the literature and statistics that already exist. literature presented and discussed. This effort, we hope, will give us a Chapter 4: Crime and Violence foundation on which to build. Unfortunately, this is clearly the most researched area on young men in the Outline region. As we know, more than two-thirds Chapter 1: A Discussion of Adolescent of all recorded crimes of violence Male Survivability committed in the region are blamed on young men, meaning males below the age This is an introductory chapter in which we of 30, and at least a fifth of those are briefly examine the meaning of survivability committed by adolescent males. In as illustrated in the Jamaican public. A Jamaica the problem of young male qualitative comparison of adolescent violence is overwhelming. Here we provide males and females in terms of survivability an overview of the country’s situation in is included. Also, inevitably, there is a brief terms of crime and violence, the latitude of discussion of the thesis of male violence in Jamaica with emphasis on the marginalization. level of young male involvement and finally explanations for our unique situation. Chapter 2: Adolescent Male Involvement in the Economy Chapter 5: Patterns of Substance Use and Abuse among Adolescent Males Here an attempt is made to locate adolescent males in the economy. We This very short chapter is critical. It closely examine their involvement in the labor examines data from the recent National force as well as in the informal or “hustle” Adolescent Students’ Drug Survey and economy, including working children. A compares information from this source with discussion of the implications of the others. findings is included. 18 Male Survivability Chapter 6: Masculinity, Sexuality and Male Bonding and Grouping Reproductive Health Very little has been written in the Caribbean This very special chapter focuses on a wide on this topic. Nonetheless it is far too range of social and health-related issues important not to include. The focus here is including the following: on male-male relationships and the homophobia dilemma and the social Masculinity gatherings of young men – at the bar, the The focus here is on the various issues mall, and the street corner. surrounding what is regarded as masculinity and the factors, including class Early Fatherhood and Family Planning and socialization, that shape the various Despite the downward trend in the fertility definitions or changes in these definitions. rate and a consistently high out-migration, Sexuality the Caribbean remains a young region. This is because parenting begins quite early A range of issues is examined in this in the region. A number of issues are chapter including: important here: • Sexual debut: attitudes, myths and • Early Fatherhood as a mark of reality; manhood; • Sources of information on sexuality • Issues of child rearing e.g., readiness, and manhood; support systems available to young • Performance and anxieties; fathers including the extended family • Knowledge and use of contraceptives and agencies; as a means of family planning and • Paternity, i.e., the dilemma of preventing sexually transmitted ownership or ”jacket.” diseases; Chapter 7: Summary and Recommendations • Homosexuality. This policy and implication page does Relationships more than summarize the data.Recommendations are made including We examine the kinds of relationships that those found in the literature. The discussion are formed during the life of a young male here is focused on the direction we should and the value of each. An attempt was go in terms of national policies and made to examine male youth perceptions community projects to ameliorate the on issues such as marriage, common law, problems of the adolescent male and to visiting and other forms of relationships. guide him to ensure a greater level of survivability and contribution to society. 19 Male Survivability Methodology Data Collection Research Aim Very little attention has been paid to the effective use of content analysis as an The research aims primarily to help inform important research tool. Documentary work with young men in Jamaica. It is also investigation requires a systematic and hoped that by identifying specific gaps in disciplined search for knowledge. Two the literature the review can be used as an main problems exist in carrying out an academic sign post or guide to the areas effective document search: access and that need most attention. quality. The first can easily be solved Age through effective negotiation; the second is more complex. In order to relate to the The discussion is aimed at the age group latter, we usually ask four questions of the 10 to 19. Nonetheless, it is not always material we collect throughout the research possible in the literature to separate this process. If the answers to these questions group from the larger youth group. Some are negative, we have grounds to refuse material therefore included young adults including such materials. ages 20 to 30 years. This is not necessarily a problem; in fact, comparison often • Authenticity: Is the evidence genuine strengthens data. and of unquestionable origin? • Credibility: Is the evidence free from Time period error and distortion, and, if not, can the distortions be measured? Scholarly work on gender and reproductive health issues in Jamaica can be said to • Representative: Is the evidence typical have existed from the pre-independence of its kind, and, if not, is the extent of era. Nonetheless, it was not until the late its atypicality known? 1970s that these issues came to be seen as • Meaning: Is the evidence clear and critical to development. Whilst not ignoring comprehensible? In other words, do I the classics, the study will draw on literature have the skill to interpret the data, or written since 1975. This practical limitation should I seek assistance to do so, and will save effort without missing critical data. is this assistance available? 20 Male Survivability CHAPTER 1 A DISCUSSION OF ADOLESCENT MALE SURVIVABILITY 21 Male Survivability 22 Male Survivability The term survivability is used here in where there was a concern for foodsociological terms to mean life chances. security, the environment became a It involves all those issues that directly affect secondary issue. It is important to note that the quality of life one can be expected to the ability to send one’s children to school have and the quality contribution one can was considered the second most important be expected to make to the develop- ment issue of survival followed by the quality of a society based on the quality of those clothing one was able to wear. Gayle life chances. For those of the lower strata, (1996) rank ordered the critical issues of upward social mobility and the survival to the poor for both men and maintenance of life at some socially women as follows: acceptable level are critical, whilst for those of the upper strata, it is the ability to remain 1. Food in good health and within the top quintiles 2. Education – the better the school and that are critical. Life chances are clearly the higher the level, the greater the measured among other variables in terms chance or expression of survival of: health care and the practice of a healthy 3. Clothing – to look good to the public, lifestyle, of education, of degree of security to hide the effects of poverty (including support and protection) and of economic opportunities. 4. Payment of bills – to be able to pay utility bills, to live in an area where Definitions of survival change with the this is done, or to be able to pay one’s circumstances of people. As found by bills rather than to bribe or Chevannes and Gayle (1998) and Gayle “emotionally blackmail the utility (1996) in studies of the urban poor in men” (p.24) who come to disconnect Jamaica, at the most desperate stage it is the source food security that is most important. In their 5. Housing – “if it is even a clean one- solid waste management study, Chevannes bedroom house with a little bed” (p. and Gayle (1998) clearly showed that 25) 23 Male Survivability selected by age and gender. After some 6. Health – to be able to visit the doctor discussion the table below was produced. when needed In the research in Kingston, Gayle (1996) Table 1.1 found that three factors were critical in the Ranks and Scores of Difficulty of Survival ability of a person to survive: age, gender by Groups, 1996 and employment (the availability of work, Group Score Rank Single Mother 10 1 as well as the person’s willingness and “Baby” father 9 2 ability to work). The most destitute were Mother with man 7 3 Young man 7 3 therefore: Middle-aged couple 6 4 “Schoolers” (boy) 5 5 1. Old and disabled without relatives or Young girls 3 6 Old people 3 6 family members who care “Schoolers” (girl) 2 7 Source: Gayle (1996). 2. Women “who her man dead or deh prison” and whose sons are too The adolescents felt that a single mother young to hustle had the hardest life, “because she can’t always work, especially if she go breed 3. A few middle-aged persons who are again fi some careless man. She goes to without jobs and are afraid to hustle bed hungry more often than anyone else for many times after she ensures that her 4. A few youth, mostly males, whose children are fed she remains hungry. parents have died or are in prison or Unlike the man she is not able to hustle in have abandoned them every way and sometimes she don’t have the mind fi ketch man” (page 38). Levels of Difficulty in The baby father was considered second tothe single mother. “The baby father has a Surviving in Working lot of responsibility – more than anyone Class Areas else. He may even die in trying to help his family survive. His life is often on the line, In all social settings some persons have to but if he makes it he has a good chance of do more to survive. In Gayle (1996), seven surviving and even moving out or seeing adolescents (three boys and four girls his children come to something, especially ranging from age 12 to 19) were asked to if his baby mother or baby mothers is/are provide a ranking and scoring table to help ambitious and help him. His life is scary the researcher understand the levels of but not as bad” (page 38). difficulty involved in the survival of different It is important to note that there is an groups of people in working class settings, awareness amongst adolescents that 24 Male Survivability young females rank much lower in terms of levels of difficulty in surviving. As pointed Figure 1.1 Flow Chart Showing Life Prospects of a Male out by the females in the group, “a girl a go Youth school is de last fi suffer cause everybody a put out dem best fi see her through” (page In School (hungry sometimes) might graduate, might not due to financial problems or fight 38) The most profound statement, however, came from a young man attending evening Start working by age 15 (few exceptions) classes at a high school in Kingston. “Look pon we who nah finish school. Yu no see Find a little Hustle Learn a trade seh we get only five but we have fi produce job (familyhappy) or break out, 50 while de women dem get 25 and dem leave everybody and ask dem fi produce only 25 - no wonder Get moneyhelp himself, and set up some a we tief." He had got up from the then come small business back group and left; tears filled his eyes. There Raise a few youths but may was no agreement or disagreement but a turn old and hush after he got up (page 39). achieve little or nothing If unlucky end up dead The following flow charts were done by a group of three male and four female youths Likely to become ages 12 to19 (Gayle 1996 : 40-41). Their Likely to become somebody andsomebody and help family aim was to map the life chances of a male help family youth in the community compared with those of a female his age. Notice that the charts show clearly that the boy is perceived as being alone in his struggle to survive, unlike the girl. Notice also that the achievement of a university degree was listed for girls and not for boys. Instead, the life prospects of the male seemed filled with the hope to find a way to provide for his family, including the extended one. 25 Male Survivability Flow Chart Showing Life Prospects of a the middle class male is not in need of help. Female Youth There is, therefore, need for research in this In School (hungry a few times) area – even if the urgency remains with the adolescent male of the poor and working class. Graduate Get pregnant The Issue of Male Social Work or ‘Turn’ mother continue school and Economic Power: and depend on Go back with help from man and fend to school man and Family Implications for thefor herself Adolescent Male Go even to university Get job In terms of economic power, the data Can be lucky still overwhelmingly support recent statements and meet a rich man by Dr. Glenda Simms of the Bureau of Leave the Good life Women’s Affairs and Dr. Patricia community and chances marry a rich man Mohammed of the Centre for Gender and Development Studies that, “it’s still a man’s world” (The Gleaner, March 15, 2000, In Chevannes and Gayle (2000), page 2). adolescent males of suburban communities reminded the researchers on “The corridors of real power are still largely numerous occasions that they were secure male dominated. While there is a large and did not feel as threatened as their inner army of men being outclassed by their city counterparts in any way, whether in female counterparts in several areas, the terms of food security, male identity, or status quo – men in charge of the critical securing the skills, including education, areas of decision making in the society – necessary for maintaining a quality life. For remains intact,” said Dr. Simms (The this group therefore, the concerns of Gleaner, March 15, 2000, page 2). In the survival had to do with the separation of same article, Dr. Mohammed held that their parents, with doing well in school, and men controlled jobs that offer the best with acceptance from friends, among other remuneration. In other words, whilst factors that could threaten their present women had come to dominate middle state of well being. Unfortunately, very few management and the University of the research efforts in the Caribbean region West Indies in terms of numbers, many of have concentrated on the middle class their efforts did not lead to lucrative adolescent male. It seems to be taken as a professions. constant in discussions of adolescence that 26 Male Survivability Many scholars, including those outside of crimes and are usually the ones further the fraternity of feminism, do not share the down the track to be dragged before the view that males are as marginalized as family court for failing to support their suggested by Miller (1996). Aspects of Errol children. Miller’s work have received more acceptance than others. He is, in fact, The above discussion can be treated as praised for raising the concern that a part of the series of responses to Errol particular group of men is experiencing Miller’s powerful thesis in 1986 on the some degree of crisis. He is even more Marginalization of the Black Jamaican lauded for highlighting the plight of males Male, further developed in his more recent in terms of education. Chevannes (1999) Men at Risk (Miller 1991). Despite the does not accept that males are debate, Miller maintains that due to the marginalized – not if the main factor requirements of patriarchy, men considered is power. Despite the increasing throughout history have played a marginal percentages of women at the University of role in the family and so exist outside the the West Indies, it is men who get elected to sphere of kinship support. More important the seat of student power. At the community though is the fact that in Jamaica, the level, whether the issue is dons or youth children of slaves, especially males, were club leaders, there is no marginalization of deliberately robbed of the tools of upward males, and as far as the churches are social mobility including education so as to concerned, women’s over-representation reduce their ability to threaten the men of in the membership and ministering groups the ruling class. For Miller (1996), male but under-representation in the leadership marginalization in Jamaica is quite echelons is well-documented (Austin-Broos complex and goes beyond the issue of 1997, Toulis 1996). economic power. He used a number of cases to illustrate a variety of ways in which It was Dr. Simms who raised the critical young black males are marginalized. The point that while it is still a man’s world in following points were raised in those cases. Jamaica, life for a particular group of men – the young and poor – had actually got 1. A number of men, having failed to worse compared to their female achieve their socio-economic goals counterparts. As she explained, what has through the education system or changed is that poor young men are doing other means, attempt to regain so badly. Boys who perform poorly in confidence through sexual prowess. school tend to be underprivileged and With this behavior, Miller contends, more often fail to get maximum benefits young men further marginalize from the education system. This group is themselves. also more likely to get involved in violent 2. The dominant role of the mother can make the father and son feel 27 Male Survivability marginalized from family life. The demonstration of this tendency is suicide, reality is that for many households it though less extreme means of self- is the mother who is the central destruction are perpetuated by the average figure and the man simply a marginalized man. This can be seen quite figurehead. clearly in substance and alcohol abuse. 3. The male is socialized to think of They may also engage in high-risk himself as powerful but realizes that behaviors. If there is success they will be the political system is far too glorified; however, death is a greater powerful for him to use his male possibility. This inclination to seek their power as a working-class person. own deaths has been explained in two ways. 4. In cases where the female is not only more educated but also earns a 1. Seeking to be responsible for their higher income, a phenomenon that own deaths may be taking away the is becoming increasingly common power of destruction of their lives in Jamaica, the male often feels that from powerful men. he has lost his position of 2. Suicide diminishes the power of dominance. powerful men by depriving them of the victims' productive capacity. Psychological Aspects of Marginalized men often turn to religion Male Marginalization and to religious beliefs that reinforce patriarchal values and norms, for instance Miller argues that the marginalized male is Rastafarianism or Christianity. The often excluded or deprived of the contradiction is that the religious beliefs materialistic basis of power. This therefore adopted utilize out-dated modes of leads him to turn to violence. Violence behavior in order to effect future change. among marginalized men is often targeted Marginalized men seek to challenge the at other marginalized men due to greater position of powerful men but not accessibility to such persons, to the desire patriarchy, as they themselves want to to be recognized by the power-holders who occupy the position of patriarch. Powerful contribute to such marginalization, to the and marginalized men in this sense hold on desire not to be the only one to remain in a to the past with the intention of maintaining disadvantaged position, (displacement of patriarchal values, symbols and status – a aggression) and finally as a resort to life- past which is obsolete. Men therefore taking power. Marginalized men often believe in their right to dominate, and those seem to display self-destructive tendencies. unable to dominate are deemed to be Miller links this to their need to accelerate failed individuals. their own doom. The most extreme 28 Male Survivability Sexual Prowess and that they are powerful and in charge and Parental Irresponsibility above all to make sure that othersacknowledge this. This often develops a The concept of machismo is of crucial sense of insecurity in the male as he has to importance here. Traditionally in Jamaica continuously try to prove himself. This machismo has been a correlate of power sense of insecurity is not shared by the demonstrated by the number of children female who, if she fails to prove herself and wives a man has, but it is also linked to strong, will still be accepted as a woman. If the protection of and provision for such she is successful and powerful, she is wives and children. Men adopt deemed to be like a man. Hence the sense promiscuous lifestyles as a means of of failure that a man feels when he cannot demonstrating manhood, even though live up to societal expectations is often quite they do not adhere to the protection of and strong. His attempt to gain power and provision for children and wives. The respect can also be extreme and increases matter of ignoring the provision for and with the level of perceived threat to his protection of children further marginalizes masculinity. The man faces a further the man as the sense of responsibility, problem due also to the role that he has which is fostered by the uniting of been socialized to play. The man is told that biological and social roles of the father, is he is the one who is in control, and yet not fulfilled and hence he does not benefit when he tries to control his destiny, he from the sense of fulfillment that realizes that societal structures are in place accompanies the responsibility. This aspect which prevent him from doing so. If taken of male marginalization is often referred to seriously, the implications of this myth of as irresponsibility. male power Miller speaks about are profound for adolescent males of the lower According to Miller’s thesis, the marginali- strata. At this critical stage of identity, boys zation of men and indeed the undesirable need men around them they can use as characteristics which are argued to be role models. Unfortunately, it would seem intrinsic parts of being a Caribbean male that much of what they see simply helps to are just reflections of the social systems in make them feel more insecure and restive. which we exist. Boys are socialized to prove 29 Male Survivability 30 Male Survivability CHAPTER 2 ADOLESCENT MALE INVOLVEMENT IN THE ECONOMY 31 Male Survivability 32 Male Survivability Adolescent Males in the Labor Force With the help of statistics, this section year of entry also says something about theexamines the level of participation of level of support the person or persons is adolescent males compared to their female receiving from family, from community or counterparts in the Jamaican labor force from the government. Finally, it must be for the years 1998 and 1999. It is borne in mind that the labor force includes important here to define labor force. A only persons 14 years and above, and labor force is comprised of all the persons therefore excludes child labor. It also in a country who are working, who possess largely ignores the “hustle” or informal a job and who are seeking a job and are economy. We will examine adolescent available for employment. It does not males who fall into the latter categories in a include those who are legally too young to separate section. work, those who voluntarily decide not to work or those who are unable to work due Table 2.1The Labor Force, by Sex, for Jamaica: 1999 to disability or age. A person can be a student and be part of the labor force at the Sex Number Percentage same time. The age at which a person Male 612,300 54.3 enters the labor force has implications for his or her future. During adolescence, Female 516,100 45.7 employment tends to have a negative Total Labor Force 1,128,400 100 impact on academic achievement and training, which are among the primary Source: STATIN. 1999. The Labor Force. prerequisites for social mobility. It is therefore preferable to delay entry until Table 2.1 tells us something that is well after adolescence or at least until the last noted worldwide: Jamaica has very high two years, i.e., until 18 years of age. The female participation in its labor force 33 Male Survivability relative to other countries. What it does not manufacturing where men own over 80 tell us is that female participation rose percent.7 This is clearly the area where dramatically from 38 percent in 1991, to adolescent males find hope and promise. 43 percent in 1996, to the present 46 percent. In most countries in the Western Obviously, women have much to achieve. Hemisphere, 40 percent female Nonetheless, the statistics do help us participation is considered a good recognize that there is a shift of family, supportive rate. Jamaica’s high female community and civil support towards participation rate suggests both leadership women. The following tables attempt to and a significant degree of independence highlight the differences in the support among women. Contrary to what is often given to adolescent males compared to discussed in public spheres, females earn adolescent females and the effect of this 39 percent of national income, a rate at the support on the age of entrance and level of top of what is common in the West.5 These participation in the labor force. factors, when added to others such as a Table 2.2 higher female literacy rate, higher female Labor Force Participation Rate of Adolescents Ages life expectancy including disability adjusted 14-19 Years Old, by Sex, for Jamaica: 1998 and 1999 life expectancy (DALE), an almost ideal fertility rate of 2.4 in 1999 (World Health Sex January 1998 January 1999 Report 2000) and greater use of the Number Percent Number Percent country’s health care, give Jamaican Male 49,900 30.3 41,900 24.5 women a better Gender-related Female 30,600 18.4 28,500 17.0 Development Index (67th) than overall Human Development Index (83rd).6 Both Sexes 80,500 24.3 70,400 20.8 These aggregates do not mean that women Source: STATIN. 1999. The Labor Force. “have arrived” in Jamaica. According to the statistics, men dominate the business Tables 2.3 and 2.4 highlight the fact that and technical sectors, especially significantly more adolescent males than manufacturing, small businesses, females are allowed to or are forced to construction, engineering and electronics. enter the labor force at this critical The small business sector is of tremendous developmental stage. Table 2.2 tells us that importance to the survival of young people. in 1998 almost a third (30.3%) of all males Men own two-thirds of all small businesses, ages 14 to 19 were in the labor force and a significant proportion of these are compared to 18.4 percent of their female young men. This is especially in the area of counterparts. The comparison for 1999 5See the Human Development Report 2000, males in Jamaica earn an average of US$4,163 per annum compared to female’s $ 2,629. 6Ibid. 7See The Jamaica Labour Force 1996 –1999. All tables in this section are constructed from data drawn from this source. 34 Male Survivability was quite similar, though that seemed to Table 2.4 have been a better year for adolescents The Labor Force, by Comparison of overall. The same trend is seen in Table 2.3 Adolescent Males and Females ages 14 to 19, for Jamaica: 1998 and 1999 where adolescent males ages 14 to 19 occupy a significant 6.8% of the total male Sex 1998 1999 labor force compared to their female counterparts who comprise 5.5% of the Number Percent Number Percent overall female labour force. It is important Male 49,900 62.0 41,900 59.5 to note that adolescent males account for a Female 30,600 38.0 28,500 40.5 noticeably larger share of their age group’s Both Sexes 80,500 100.0 70,400 100.0 participation in the labor force than males overall. Notice that they accounted for 62 Source: STATIN. 1999. The Labor Force. and 60 percent for the years 1998 and 1999. Figures for 1999 showed that Table 2.5 is probably the most graphic and overall, men occupy 59.5 percent of the focused. It tells us precisely why it is labor force (See Table 2.4). possible for women to be so highly represented in the overall labor force but not equally so in the data for adolescents ages 14 to 19. The data clearly allow for Table 2.3 the inference that there has been a Male and Female Adolescents Ages 14-19 concerted effort on the part of the family in Years Old as a Percent of the Labor Force, for Jamaica: 1999 particular to delay the participation of females in the labor force until they have Sex Percentage Percentage Percventage gathered at least some basic skills. The of Total of Male of Female same cannot be said for the support given Labor Force Labor Force Labor Force to adolescent males of the same age. Males 3.7 6.8 Males clearly enter the labor force in larger Female 2.5 5.5 numbers at an earlier age. Notice that in 1998 a third entered before reaching the Both Sexes 6.2 school leaving age of 18 years. They are Source: STATIN. 1999. The Labor Force Survey 1999 therefore more likely to begin working before possessing a skill. Their education is interrupted. The relatively poor support given to adolescent males must be taken into account when we discuss the dilemma that 80 percent of the male labor force in 1998 had no formal training compared to an also frightening but lower 75 percent of 35 Male Survivability the female labor force. Furthermore, two- burden on the family. The evidence from thirds (62%) of all professionals with numerous research efforts including, diplomas and degrees are women. Chevannes (2001), Gayle (1996), Ford Foundation (1996), Brown (1993), and A number of issues must be raised from the Brown et al (1993) is clear about the data on unemployed young people. Unlike immense pressure that the unemployed their female counterparts, unemployed young male faces due to the expectation for young men (14-24 years old) rely on him to earn money, despite his parents and relatives as their main system circumstances including age and training. of support. For the years 1998 and 1999, Research also bears out that in the case in these two sources of support were recorded which the parent (especially a single as the rescue for 80 and 84 percent mother) is unable to bear the burden and respectively of unemployed young men. relatives are not in close proximity or are These figures, when compared with those unwilling to assist, the male youth will be of their female counterparts (55 and 63 forced to join that aspect of the labor force percent respectively) for the same period, that is “below the radar.” We will return to tell us that the unemployed male is a this point. Table 2.5 Labor Force Ages 14-19, by Two-Year Age Groups, for Jamaica: 1998/1999 January 1998 January 1999 Males Age Group Number Percent Cumula- Number Percent Cumula- tive % tive % 14-15 2,000 4.0 4.0 1,100 2.6 2.6 16-17 14,000 28.1 32.1 10,300 24.6 27.2 18-19 33,900 67.9 100.0 30,500 72.8 100.0 14-19 49,900 100.0 41,900 100.0 Females 14-15 900 2.9 2.9 400 1.4 1.4 16-17 6,300 20.6 23.5 5,700 20.0 21.4 18-19 23,400 76.5 100.0 22,400 78.6 100.0 14-19 30,600 100.0 28,500 100.0 Source: STATIN. 1999. The Labor Force. 36 Male Survivability The young male’s dilemma is that other with statisticians that the friends young than parents and relatives, he has no one females largely rely on are overwhelmingly else on whom to rely but himself. Notice males. This undoubtedly helps to create an that for both 1998 and 1999 one out of ten additional source of stress on the young (or 10%) of young males reported that they males, especially considering that some depended on personal savings during the are themselves unemployed or marginally period of unemployment. Only about 3 employed. percent of the unemployed young females needed to rely on personal savings as their main source of support. Young men lack Hustling and Juggling: the networks of friends that their female Adolescent Males counterparts depend on, and spousal Working Below the Radar support is equally non-existent for them (just over 1%). One out of three The informal sector is both an indicator of unemployed young females can rely on and a solution for poverty. Jamaica has a these sources for support. In clarifying the very large informal sector. STATIN (1999, use of the category 'friend' as different from The Labour Force) estimated the visible 'spouse', it became clear from dialogues aspect to involve over one-quarter of the Table 2.6 Unemployed Labor Force, by Main Means of Support, for Young People ages 14-24, for Jamaica: 1998/1999 Males Females Relation January 1998 January 1999 January 1998 January 1999 Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Parents 23,800 64.7 25,100 71.3 26,00 43.7 29,300 51.8 Spouse/C/Law 400 1.1 600 1.7 15,600 26.2 10,100 17.8 Other Relatives 5,600 15.2 4,400 12.5 6,500 10.9 6,400 11.3 Friend 600 6.1 0 0.0 4,900 8.2 4,800 8.5 Personal 4,000 10.9 3,300 9.4 1,600 2.7 1,800 3.2 Savings Other 700 1.9 1,100 3.1 3,000 5.1 3,100 5.5 Not Stated 1,700 4.6 700 2.0 1,900 3.2 1,100 1.9 Total 36,800 100.0 35,200 100.0 59,500 100.0 56,600 100.0 Source: STATIN. 1999. The Labor Force. 37 Male Survivability work force. According to Witter and Kirton from stealing), petty stealing, begging, go- (1990), drawing on data from the Inter- go dancing, prostitution and conning American Development Bank, a large (Gayle 1996). Witter (1980) summed proportion (32 percent) of the population hustle activities into categories of earning over age 14 was outside the formal labor by service, by force, by appeal to force in the 1980s. They estimated that conscience and by games of chance. about one-third of the urban labor force Hustling is usually a high-risk activity and survived through the use of the informal subject to variables of age and gender. sector, and that beyond the 1980s this Younger people and males tend to be more aspect of the economy would grow to involved. Young men are involved in the account for over a quarter of GDP. Still, a most high-risk hustling activities including large aspect of the informal sector is under- drug trafficking, and gun “store and keep”. researched and fairly unknown to the vast The female hustle activities that carry the majority of Jamaicans. This aspect is often most risk are prostitution and scams such described as the “illegal”, “subterranean”, as “crotching”.8 It is important to note, “clandestine”, “irregular”, “underground” however, that the concept of hustle as used and “hustle” economy. From all available by inner city or working class folk never data, including the Jamaica labor force includes major property crimes, organized reports, women are very prominent in the drug trafficking or murder. Those involved visible aspect of the informal sector in the latter are treated as hardened especially in areas such as vending. criminals and are separated from hustlers. Nonetheless, the hustle economy is Gayle (1996) learned that hustling is a bit dominated by males, especially by the parasitic. The idea is not to hurt the victim young. more than necessary; the hustler just takes a bit. This seems to be the protective veil of It is difficult to measure the hustle economy. the hustler’s conscience. Unlike vending and some other economic activities, a hustler may not operate more There is a difference between hustling and than once at a particular location. Hustling juggling. The latter relates to involvement is not bound by conventions or legal in a number of economic activities that pay relations. It is very often illegal and runs marginally but are useful when combined. counter to the values in which the actors Juggling is extremely laborious and is often were socialized. It may include, among referred to as “slaving”. The choice to other activities, gambling, smuggling, hustle or juggle depends on gender, illegal currency exchange, hot sales (the socialization and circumstance among sale of stolen goods, which is separate other factors. 8This is a form of shoplifting in which small items are carried away from a store between the women’s legs. Chevannes (2001:168) illustrates the craft. 38 Male Survivability “Youths learn to hustle on the streets, but prescribed means of striving for they learn to juggle from their mother, I was these goals – differentially told. By juggle the analysts meant to do distributed based on class10; more than one simple job to earn enough 6. The desperation of single mothers money to survive, but it also means using and baby mothers and their push on the little money wisely like a little granny. the male to earn money. Men make better hustlers, and women make better jugglers. Women are not as keen on hustling ‘cause not all of dem have Area Stigma di heart.’ Finally a man may be juggling and pressure reach him, ‘im start to hustle For young men in the inner city area, too, so now ‘im huggle – hustle and juggle.’ stigma is the primary reason they are Most persons who hustle and juggle are outside the formal labor force. Having an men with a large number of dependents” education (and certificates to prove this Gayle (1996). achievement) does not guarantee an inner city male a job. In Gayle (1996), very few There are a number of reasons why young adolescent males of East Kingston could men hustle despite the risk involved. From cite examples of adolescent males who got the available literature the following seem jobs because they had passes in the to be the main ones: Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) or its equivalent. Nonetheless, they could find 1. The inability of government to raise a number of young men with passes in the the standard of living or CXC working at a gas station pumping gas employment rate; or doing some task that required no skill or 2. Lack of education or skill training; training. The adolescent males felt it was 3. The difficulties involved in getting a more realistic for working class males to job due to area stigma; learn a trade. It is important to note that area stigma does not affect females in this 4. The creative capacity and resource- way. The following excerpt from Gayle fulness, combined with the drive to (1996) illustrates the seriousness of the survive evident in Jamaicans9; issue of area stigma. 5. The society is ideal for creative deviation as there is great stress “The problem of area stigma cannot be upon the value of particular goals underestimated, I was told, ‘cause it wicked such as material wealth, and less bad’. As one youth age 21 and an stress on the institutionally unemployed graduate of Kingston College, put it, ‘Is area stigma, bad name and bad 9Anderson (1987), Henry-Wilson (1991) 10See Merton’s (1968) discussion of deviation. 39 Male Survivability vibes soak up dem youths yah – nuff a dem, juggle,’ one lady pointed out” (Gayle given the chance can do well.’ It was not 1996:30-31). until the final discussion in the issue of unemployment that a very valuable point was made by a 19-year-old past student of Pressured to Earn Money Excelsior. ‘Sometimes you cannot blame the at Any Cost employers from uptown,’ he said calmly and in perfect English. This had caused the “Youths, especially males, are encouraged other six persons in the group to stop to hustle. A mother may ask her son when speaking. There was complete silence as he he comes home frustrated after several explained, ‘the media never come to attempts to get a job, ‘What happen to your [Huggleton] when our youths do all the head weh God give you, you can’t hustle?’ wonderful things but they race each other to A woman may also pressure her man to come if one of us kills another. So the hustle when other things fail” (Gayle 1996: uptown people are stiff scared.’ Laughing, 31). he told us that he had to take an uptown Chevannes (2001, 1999, 1996), girlfriend downtown one day and that she Chevannes and Levy (1996), Gayle (1996), was so scared that she almost scared him Headley (1994) and Moser and Holland too. To make matters worse, he explained, (1997) all speak of the immense pressure some of the youths go to seek a job when placed on young males to provide for the they are quite upset, having been insulted family and the implications of this for by a number of employees before; and also, economically related crimes. They are ‘sometimes the way they dress turn off di often expected to earn an income at any people dem,’ a young lady added.” cost. According to this argument, the vast “The main speaker went on to explain how majority of males involved in economic or he got his job as a teller at a bank. He hustle-related violence could be expected dressed decently and spoke fluently, he to have a poor educational background said; used his aunt’s address (some place and to lack the other skills needed for up Shortwood) and only later told his employment in the formal sector, but they supervisor the truth. ‘Otherwise my five are nonetheless expected to provide for a CXCs would be useless,’ he explained.” family, including siblings. Chevannes (2001) documented that despite the fear of “Due to the impact of area stigma, some having boy babies due to the difficulties youth do not bother to seek a job if they do involved in raising males in the inner cities, not have the contacts. ‘They know once you adolescent boys are often preferred to their come from [Huggleton] you have fi know female counterparts due to their earning how fi hustle and if needs be hustle and power. In one community it was found that single mothers would go to great lengths to 40 Male Survivability protect their earning adolescent son from 168) documented, “Once when Chris having girlfriends so as to protect the cash dodged a kill, David teased him by earned by the boy. The matter of providing, remarking that his dodging was similar to as will be discussed later in more depth, the time he dodged the police in Cross rests at the core of male identity. Roads.” The youth in question had picked the pocket of an unsuspecting man in Cross Risk Taking Roads. Only his artful dodging hadprevented the police from nabbing him. Adolescent males are better socialized to Except for horse racing, all other forms of hustle than females. This is clear in the gambling activities in the inner cities are literature. The fact that adolescent males illegal. Because of their petty nature they receive less attention and support than their often go unnoticed but remain a potential female counterparts cannot be seen as source of arrest, especially if the police are enough of an explanation for the rate at unable to pin the bigger charges. For this which adolescent males join the hustle reason, most of these activities require economy. Chevannes (2001) presented players to be on the alert for the police. In gambling as one of the key activities that Chevannes (2001) it is clear from provides young males with the skill of risk dialogues with boys ages 12 to 14 involved taking. “Every form of illegal activity in illegal gambling, that they understood involves a risk. Gambling involves a double the rules of this game of survival before risk, that of losing and that of being adolescence. Whilst training in risk-taking caught” (page 161). In the inner cities, does not necessarily lead to crime, it Ludo, dominoes, bingo, crown-an-anchor, certainly is a contributing factor. drop pan, horse racing and cards are quite Chevannes illustrated this point by popular forms of male recreation. presenting notes on aspects of the lives of Chevannes highlighted the game of Ludo two adolescents. The first was fully involved because it involves some elements of in the trafficking of cocaine at age 14, strategy which enable a player to dodge a having started at age 12. He seemed kill by distancing his men or markers from trapped by the money, power and lifestyle his opponent’s or by spacing their progress he derived from the trade; his only hope of to the safety of heaven which marks the end escape was to go to school in the United of the game. The game allows players to States if his mother got to migrate there and cooperate with one another against a if she chose to send for him to join her – common enemy, but also, in a version though she was afraid of him. Bof, the called corruption, they can play without second adolescent, unlike the first, got to mercy to survive on their own. Ludo fifth form at Kingston College and had represents real life situations for young earned seven Ordinary Level passes. inner city males. As Chevannes (2001: 41 Male Survivability However, he was unable to graduate due Low risk Hustling to fighting and insulting school administrators. His hopes are to do “Dan is the second child of a married medicine at The University of the West couple that broke up when he was age 17. Indies. Nonetheless what seems to His father now resides in Canada where he separate the two are simply luck and some has three children ‘so im don’t send a lot of degree of free will. money... cause im is just a sideman on a truck and don’t earn much.’ The money his “Bof explained that he had been asked four father sends home helps to pay bills and times to hide guns for older men. His quiet take care of the four younger children – two disposition and reputation as a KC student girls and two boys. Dan and his older made him the last person to come under brother, who lifts luggage at the Norman suspicion. With much of the blood money he Manley Airport, take care of themselves. received for his services he was able to put Dan never started goosing until he was 18. himself through school. One night, though, He had left school with only three passes in he was nearly caught. As he said this he the Caribbean Council Examinations. He shivered. He had just been given a gun to had helped his mother run the stall at the deliver to Johnson Street. On reaching the gate but that was not only ‘boring and not bridge across the drain, there in his way mekking nutten’, but held him in the stood three policemen, three of the most community all day. He had also gone to famous and deadly. He almost froze. With seek work but found that the only jobs the .38 in his waist in back, he tried walking available were ‘labour work. A can’t as normally as he could, hailing one of them manage those.’” as if he knew him. But just as one of the lawmen was about to call him for a search, “Dan, realizing that he needed to have at another he had not even seen called out, least six CXCs and some A levels to impress “Mr. KC!” That marked the turning point for a man nowadays started to attend evening him. He then and there thanked God, classes at age 19. When asked, ‘So how resolved to stop the nonsense, and have you been managing since,’ Dan concentrate on his CXCs” (Chevannes responded, “‘My mother said to me, my boy 2001: 167-168). you is the ambitious one in the family so far. God going bless you. Between me and you There is no evidence to show that Bof is out father we will try help you but you have fi of the woods. Socialized in risk taking, he is hustle something fi yourself cause book and trying desperately to stay away from illegal dem things dear.’” activities but this might not be sustained if his circumstances change for the worse. “Dan had already started to goose by this time but only small time. Knowing now that his mother approved of him hustling he 42 Male Survivability began to goose full-scale. He taught me to more than four days per week since he had goose and we in fact goosed together twice to prepare to sit his four CXCs and two A of the seven times I observed him. Goosing Levels. Yet he earned an average of $8,000 is an extremely easy, innocent looking and per week or $2,000 per day. Before ’exam kind scam. It simply requires a youth to act pressure come down’ he said he made as as an assistant to people in the shoes high as $3,000 or 4,000 on a good day. arcade who seem to be either from the Dan’s hope is ‘’to join the necktie crew country or uptown. Dan and I would meet uptown’ when he passes his subjects for ‘a the client (as he called them), or goose man cannot live their life like this.’ In other since they are sometimes naive, at the gate words, conning for most youths is a of the arcade. The idea is to greet the temporary or a transient occupation” (See person nicely and offer to help him or her to Gayle 1996: 50-52). find the shoes he or she is searching for. If the person agrees, and they often do, especially women, the gooser helps her find Street and Working the shoes as he promised. A gooser never Children: Sometimes allows a person to leave without buying, Visible and Disturbing, Don told me during my training.” Sometimes Quietly “The happy goose leaves giving the kind Suffering and helpful youth a tip of usually $50-$100, never more and rarely less. The goose is, “Mark is a 14-year-old boy who has however, tricked in the pricing of the shoes. already been hustling for two years and Most shoes venders are happy to work with who exhibits to a large extent, adult a gooser since he brings customers and behavior. Mark became the man of the persuades them to buy. This means good house at age 12, only weeks after his business. In return he allows the gooser to father’s funeral. His father was shot by a quote the price for the shoes. This price is police because he was stupid or ‘bad marked up. The gooser returns for the enough to attack the police with an icepick’ difference after the deal is made. Dan has when asked to allow himself to be connections with six vendors – each selling searched. As far as persons in the different kinds of shoes. He gooses between community analyze it, he was selling 10 to 20 persons each day. The bigger the cocaine and probably had stock on him. buy, the higher the markup and hence a He died leaving behind three children: a gooser’s best day, is when he gets persons 12-year-old son and two girls ages 10 and to buy expensive name-brand sneakers.” 13. A few weeks after his death, Mark was stopped from attending school as the “During the period of study, Dan never $1000 per week earned by his mother at worked for more than six hours per day nor 43 Male Survivability the free-zone could only send the girls to Mark says he does not know why but he school.” often hits his sisters and even roughs up his mother. The truth is that his burden is often “A teacher sympathized and bought Mark a too much for a youth of his age to carry” glass wiper and advised him how to survive. (Gayle 1996: 52-54). By wiping car glass at stop signs after school and on most Fridays, along with The plight of Mark is not unique. helping to carry bags for persons in the Thousands of children in Jamaica can be market on Saturdays, Mark was able to help described as laborers, falling into a variety send his two sisters to school. Both girls are of out-of-place categories, including street, in fact in high school – only Mark was not domestic, agricultural and sexually able to pass his Common Entrance exploited. From the first phase of the Examination because he had stopped Baseline Survey in Child Labour: Spanish attending school. He now attends an all- Town, completed June 2001, much can be age school but mostly four days per week. learned about the situation of child On his request one afternoon I gave him a laborers there with implications for urban lift to a new location he had discovered – a and to a lesser extent rural Jamaica. It must Kentucky Fried Chicken drive-through. Here be noted that the study was focused on he did tremendously well for a week until children from the inner city of Spanish another boy joined him to share the profit.” Town, an area covering a population of over 18,000. The study highlighted the fact “Mark gives almost everything he earns to that: his mother. In fact one evening at 10 o’clock after picking him up (along with his • The number of children in Spanish bucket, rag and wiper) and taking him Town that are out of place or not in home we stopped by the gate to count his school and involved in some form of earnings. It came up to $205. I was labor is frightening. It is estimated at shocked to see him take $5 out to buy a bag 1,220, an increased of 36.2 percent juice and hand the balance to his mother. It over last year. Of this number, an was a hard evening, he said and he was not estimated 431 are residents of able to hustle the following day, Friday, for Spanish Town. In some areas such as he had a test to do. This evening he seemed Tawes Pen, an estimated 60 percent much older as he said thanks and slowly of school aged children were out of walked into his yard. Despite all his efforts, place. In Waterloo, the Market Area even by working in the market and cleaning and Ellerslie Pen, 30 percent of glass on the same day, his highest earning children were in a similar situation. for a day was six hundred dollars ($600). Overall, the inner city communities Unfortunately, however, a neighbour told studied in Spanish Town had anaverage of 22.6 percent of school- me, the boy is extremely angry sometimes. aged children out of place. 44 Male Survivability • In three schools surveyed, 14 percent largely a female group, but the of habitual absentees were engaged minority (10.5% or two of the 19) of in labor (5.3% of enrollment). Up to sexually exploited boys should not be 19 percent of children not attending ignored. school (not including those kept at • Sadly, it was found that a large home for economic reasons) might majority (87%) of working children be street/ working children. did so with parents’ consent and even • The sample of 310 children at their insistence. An exception to the interviewed turned up a large rule was the category of sexually majority (62.3%) of street children exploited children, yet as many as 43 who fell into three categories: percent acted with parents’ consent. 1. Of the street: living and working “Dem take the money and then on the street (1.3%) cuss,’’ a girl explained. Single mothers headed a large majority 2. On the street: only working on (54%) of the desperate homes from the street but who go home which these children came. (36.8%) • Very alarming, but probably not 3. Market children (25.8%) surprising, was that over a half of all • The ratio of male to female child street children said they were happy. laborers was 56 to 44. Boys The boys especially felt it was outnumbered girls 2:1 in the total important to be assisting. In fact, a street category. Those of the street large number said they went on the were overwhelmingly boys, both street on their own volition having interviewed and estimated. It is recognized that without their help the important to note here that while the family would be in worse destitution. sample picked up only a few boys • Working children were found to living on the street, a focus group of suffer from a number of illnesses these boys estimated that a large including frequent bouts of flu, fevers number of boys in Spanish Town did and so forth (77.4%), respiratory not go home at night. On the other problems (11.3), eye and ear hand, the situation was nearly infections (3.5%) and STDs (2.6%). reversed in the domestic/ agricultural helpers’ category where girls • Overall, 20 percent of the sample constitute nearly 60 percent. could be described as ‘high-risk’ Surprising, however, is the fact that children: the very significant 40 percent that – habitual users of cigarettes, alcohol, boys made up was employed at marijuana, or cocaine home in traditional women’s work. Sexually exploited children are 45 Male Survivability – sexually active with multiple partners at extreme risk, especially the risk of engaging in unprotected sex contracting HIV. – physically, sexually or psychologically 1. The boys were not always able to get abused condoms. – sometimes weapon carriers 2. They had a negative attitude toward • Fifteen percent of the children had condoms. been knocked unconscious on at 3. They had very early sexual debuts – least one occasion, and 10.8 percent from primary school age. had been stabbed or shot at. 4. They had multiple partners from an Other resent research has made the same early age. conclusion regarding street children. Using 5. They were involved in drugs and focus group discussion with street boys alcohol use. ages 11 to 17, Robinson, Bain, and Thompson (2001) found that the boys were 6. They had grave misconceptions about HIV/AIDS. 46 Male Survivability CHAPTER 3 ADOLESCENT MALES AND THE EDUCATION SYSTEM 47 Male Survivability 48 Male Survivability “There is a direct relationship between debate is whether or not boys are genuinely lack of education and the violence you outperformed in school. The fact that boys witness carried out by young men. As a are outnumbered has a tremendous effect lawyer I see it everyday they walk into my on the quality of male input within the labor office and they begin to speak to me. I hear force. the language and I assess the education background and I can guess if they come Outnumbered about some violent crime. Is not everybody in Westmoreland treat me nice or with Despite the dissatisfaction of a large respect. Some disrespect me and do various percentage of the populace with the evil things to me, but you never hear that enrollment levels and quality of education Ricketts threatening to kill any person. I put received in Jamaica, the country is ranked it to you the main reason is that I am among the top of the developed countries educated. Rarely do the educated use in terms of education. The problem lies in violence as a tool of expression. Oonoo the sex adjustment of the figures outlined must educate the youth dem, an a mean the boy dem too. School mek fi dem too. BOX 2SCHOOL ENROLMENT FOR BOTH SEXES: Education is not only about making money; AGE 3-24 it is also about shaping character.”11 86.1% Early Childhood (Age 3-5) 99.1% Primary (Age 6-11) Debating the Problem: 97.4% First Cycle Secondary (Age 12-14) Out-numbered or 82.5% Second Cycle Secondary (15-16)39.5% Upper Level Secondary (17-18) Out-performed? 7% University/Post Secondary (16-24) {note overlapping} It is a known fact that girls outnumber boys Source: Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions in school at all post-primary levels. The 11Lawyer speaking at a community forum on the topic of Crime and Violence: Strategies and Solutions in Petersfield, Westmoreland on September 19, 2001, hosted by the Association of Clubs. 49 Male Survivability above. According to the Human (causative) factor here, is also the result of Development Report 2000, Jamaica’s other factors, including neglect of male male to female functional literacy ratio is children. It is important here not to miss the 82: 90. relationship between the gradual wearing away (attrition) of males from the education According to census data from 1982 to system and their higher mortality rates 2000 and data from the Ministry of (another form of attrition). Education, more boys than girls attend primary school, but boys begin to drop out at the secondary level such that more Table 3.1Primary and Secondary Enrolment by Sex females than males attend secondary and 1991 tertiary institutions. More boys are enrolled in primary schools in Jamaica largely School Boys Girls because usually more males are born than Level Number Percentage Number Percentage females. Take 1991 for example: Primary 587,203 50.7 571,454 49.3 According to the census in that year, 28,403 males were born compared to Secondary 306,960 45.2 372,374 54.8 27,323 females, a ratio of 104 males to 100 females. This information has always Source: STATIN. 1991. Population Census, 1991 come as a shock to many Jamaicans, The shift at the tertiary level has been recent although this is a normal sex ratio at birth and swift. In 1982 it became apparent that (more boys born than girls) (Huapt and a shift was likely considering that males no Kane, 1998). The question that follows is: longer significantly outnumbered females where did the males go? More males than in tertiary institutions (50.4% of 21,679 females die through infancy, through persons attending tertiary institutions were adolescence, through young and middle males). By 1991 females had overtaken adulthood and up to age 75. The 1991 males (52% of the 30,804) in terms of census showed that in the 0-9 years having a university education (Population category, 508 boys died compared to 387 Census, 1991). Recent data reveal that girls, a ratio of 57 males to 43 females. over two-thirds of the trained labor force Only beyond the age of 75 do women have with degrees and diplomas are women a higher mortality rate. The data tell us (STATIN, 1999. The Labour Force 1999). that by the age of entry into the labor force (14 years) there are more females than males. Table 3.1 below shows how the Outperformed enrollment ratio shifts from the primary to Despite the noise about females the secondary level. As is clear, the higher outperforming boys in school, a number of infant mortality rate, an independent scholars, including Professor Barry 50 Male Survivability Chevannes, maintain that this is not so; parents; more likely to be shifted from one rather, the statistics overwhelm many parent figure to another; to have parents at readers to the extent that they confuse boys the extremes of age, and with lower levels being outnumbered with being of education. They attended schools of outperformed. The results of the Common poorer quality, and they were less Entrance Examination for a long time, until equipped for school. In terms of gender, its demise, were skewed toward girls. This though, she identified no significant has been lamented to the point that the difference overall in terms of experiences in cognitive health of Jamaican boys was a daily lives. It was found that girls attended matter of concern. Tests have, however, church more frequently, read more books, consistently shown boys to be equal to or and were more involved in organized slightly ahead of girls. extra-curricula activities. Though her instrument was not designed to assess the Samms-Vaughn (2000) surveyed and impact of these socializing agencies, we tested 11 year olds and found that can assume that these do come to bear on Jamaican children showed great diversity the prerequisites of discipline and work in both academic performance and attitude necessary for success in the school cognitive testing, depending on type of system. Not surprisingly, she found that school, environment and school girls outperformed boys on all academic experience. Students in high schools tests though both sexes performed similarly performed best, followed by children on cognitive tests. Nonetheless, while the attending preparatory and new secondary majority of those who significantly under- then by those attending all-age and achieved on the academic tests were boys, primary schools. Quality of education is the majority of significant under-achievers therefore critical. Better cognitive and on cognitive tests were girls. academic outcomes were recorded among children whose biological parents were in The discussion surrounding the Common stable relationships; who had their Entrance Examination has been whether or biological parents as their parenting not it is reasonable to give boys at ages 10- figures; who lived with both parents, whose 12 an examination that places or displaces parents were highly educated and whose them in society, given that at that age and parenting figures were between 40 and 49 point of socio-biological development, a years. Note the implication for the children boy is at a disadvantage competing with a of the poor. Samms-Vaughn noted the girl. Given this debate, we will use figures domino effect of poverty. Children born in for males and females in secondary and poverty had poorer home environments tertiary institutions to see whether or not both physically and emotionally. They were there is a case for males being less likely to have contact with biological outperformed or numerically over- 51 Male Survivability whelmed. The fact is that if they are not females are prepared for skills focused on outperformed as is held, then we ought to the home or on traditional occupations at concentrate on getting more boys into the workplace while boys are prepared for schools. Chevannes (1999: 33) identified what are perceived as moneymaking, the problem not as one of boys being technological skills. It is important to note outperformed but as one of “male under- nonetheless that the aggregates for males participation or under-representation in the in male subjects were never as high as the key institution designed to prepare the aggregates for females in female subjects. young for life, namely the education Only in technical drawing did more than system.” one thousand males sit the examination. Tracing a group of students from grades 1 Chevannes found the same trend for the to 11, Chevannes (1999) examined their two major tertiary institutions in Jamaica: CXC results to see if boys were really University of the West Indies and The outperformed. Drawing on Ministry of University of Technology. The data for the Eeducation statistics from 1996-1997, he University of the West Indies showed very found that despite the much higher attrition clearly that while their numbers were three rates for boys, which led to fewer boys times smaller than females in terms of sitting the CXCs, boys were not enrollment, males consistently graduated outperformed by girls. “When only grades with higher rates of First Class Honors. 1 and 2 are calculated, the gender Only at the lower levels were their rates performances were more or less on par, lower (see Table 3.4). Also, males with males outperforming the females in 15 accounted for a higher proportion in areas of the 35 subjects, and females out- of study that were related to those male- performing the males in 14. If girls were in related subjects selected from secondary fact better achievers than boys, this should school. Consequently the University of have shown itself at the higher levels as Technology maintained a higher male well”(page 14). percentage (40%) than the University of the West Indies (26%) with its greater subject Chevannes found that in the CXCs there bias toward females. were many more female subjects than male subjects. He defined a subject as having a Bailey (1997: 28) noted the same trend as gender bias if the ratio of those who sat the Chevannes for the Caribbean region. subject was three or more times in favor of one sex than the other. Seven were found “Results at grades one and two in the 1996 for boys and eleven for girls (see Tables 3.2 CXC examinations for all Caribbean and 3.3 below). These biases are not territories participating in the examination surprising, Chevannes argued. They follow were used to determine achievement the pattern of socialization whereby patterns for males and females entered for 52 Male Survivability 16 academic and 17 technical-vocational Engineering Technology), as is expected, subjects at the general proficiency level. males outperformed girls in all subjects The results indicate the typical sex-linked except for Building Technology where the pattern reported universally. In the performance differential was 3.71 in favour academic grouping, boys outperformed of girls. This difference, is however, almost girls in all except two of the nine science- insignificant given that only 43 girls as based subjects. In the case of Physics and against 460 boys sat the examination. In Chemistry there were slight differentials of the case of the female dominated subjects 1.15 and 0.31 respectively in favour of (Food and Nutrition, Clothing and Textiles, girls. Boys as a group are therefore Home Economics, Shorthand, Principles of outstripping girls in the sciences. The Business (POB), Principles of Accounts reverse was true for the Humanities where (POA), Typewriting, Office Procedures), girls outperformed boys in the seven girls outperformed boys in all subjects subjects subsumed in this group.” except POB and Shorthand where the performance differentials were 3.8 and In the technical grouping the sex-linked 10.3 respectively. The difference in pattern remains almost intact. In the male performance in Shorthand is insignificant dominated grouping (Technical Drawing, given that there were only 15 male entrants, Woods, Metals, Electrical Technology, compared to the 462 females.” Building Technology, Mechanical TABLE 3.2 Gender Biases in CXC Subject Areas and Number of Males Sitting the Exams, 1993-1996 Traditionally 1993 1994 1995 1996 male subject Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Building Tech. 182 21 2076 18 195 16 255 17 Elec. Tech. 348 28 415 27 499 25 438 37 Elec./Elec. 400 21 466 45 471 36 725 59 Mech. Eng. NO DATA NO DATA 283 11 272 8 Metals 271 6 309 7 314 10 328 14 Tech. Drawing 1,749 128 1,888 156 1,924 158 2,332 213 Woods 356 14 367 11 412 19 570 28 TOTAL 3,306 218 3,652 257 4,098 275 4,920 376 Source: Bailey, 1997 53 Male Survivability Causes for Fewer Boys in rates increased with age and differed by School sex. The highest rate (30% for boyscompared to 23% for girls was therefore Clearly then, while adolescent males were that of grade 10 boys. not being outperformed, their small From the Baseline Survey in Child Labour: numbers have implications for their Spanish Town (ILO/IPEC, 2001) and data contribution to society and are an issue of from The Labour Force, we can conclude concern. The data tell us that there are a that the main reason for high attrition rates number of reasons why boys lose their among boys is economic. This has clear numerical advantage after childhood. implications for government policies. The Economics and Attrition 1998 Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions (PIOJ and STATIN, 1999) and Samms- Research has confirmed that the drop-out Vaughn (2000), among others are certain rate of boys from the school system far that economics is a major factor in terms of exceeds that of girls. Chevannes (1999) attendance and performance. The 1998 tracing a cohort of students, found attrition Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions TABLE 3.3 Gender Biases in CXC Subjects and Number of Females Sitting the Exams, 1993-1996 Traditionally 1993 1994 1995 1996 Female subjects Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Clothing 686 11 730 19 722 21 916 27 Craft 73 14 44 10 71 27 64 30 Food & Nutr. 1,428 123 1,782 128 1683 127 2,009 229 French 338 61 338 73 340 83 369 74 Home Mang. 987 47 1,189 69 1,186 61 1,888 81 Office Practice 3,221 760 3,265 901 3,335 886 6,489 1,581 Religious Educ. 457 119 627 122 785 318 881 424 Shorthand 341 3 278 9 204 6 280 11 Social Studies 1,774 571 2,319 778 2,437 747 3,433 1,221 Spanush 1,098 303 1,340 356 1,327 410 1,422 531 Typing 2,626 240 2,554 277 2,364 243 3,092 302 TOTAL 13,079 2,252 14,466 2,742 13,598 2,584 14,543 2,224 Source: Bailey, 1997 54 Male Survivability highlighted the fact that two of every three found them sexually active but aware of (66.4%) children who did not attend school contraceptives. Girls of primary and high on Fridays could not do so because of a school age are generally watched carefully lack of money; two of three (66.8%) also by community and family members. The few belonged to the poorest consumer groups. we observed playing basketball up to dusk and after always had a brother or a mother Not to be ignored also is the finding that close by. Those who have been unfortunate boys were the majority (55.8%) of the 22 enough to fall victim to the gang rape percent out-of-school population and were known as battery carry the humiliating less literate than girls in the same category. nickname of mattress. On the whole, girls in The boys had simply stopped attending Joetown are noticeably clean, well-dressed school at an earlier age and for longer and presentable when appearing in public, periods than their female counterparts. even when wearing their ‘batty riders,’ as Again, it was found that more than a half some do.” (51%) of the children out of school were “A noticeably large number of Joetown from households headed by single boys who should be in school may be females. Again, the plight of Jamaican observed gambling, playing marbles or women must be discussed concurrently basketball or just walking the streets. When with that of men. Clearly demonstrated in not accepted into adult gambling circles, the Spanish Town Baseline Survey of Street they create their own in abandoned houses, and Working Children and by Chevannes at the back of yards, in tracks between (2001) and Gayle (1996), among others, is houses, even in the churchyards, and there the fact that when mothers lose the gamble for marbles, elastic bands and breadwinner of the family, they often turn money. Stealing is another major activity: to the male child for assistance. empty bottles, school children’s lunch Socialization money, people’s pockets. Some are couriers and messengers for drug dealers.” Chevannes (2001: 158-159) illustrates the problem as it relates to the socialization of “…The ranks of the drop-outs swell from boys in working class communities. time to time, as parents when faced with too little money for school, send their daughters “Most children of school age do attend but keep back their sons. Girls thus have a school, but a large number, mainly the greater association with school than boys boys, do not. We were surprised to find so do; have less pressure to prove anything; many girls over age twelve years old and usually manage to graduate unless attending high school. They may be seen they get pregnant. Boys on the other hand, bustling early in the morning in larger are subject to the pressure of having to numbers than their male counterparts. We contribute to the household and to their 55 Male Survivability TABLE 3.4 University of the West Indies (UWI) Graduates, by Sex and Class of Degree, 1990-98 YEAR 1st CLASS UPPER SECOND LOWER SECOND PASS TOTAL 1990-91 Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female 8 9 60 137 106 223 58 98 232 467 3.4 1.9 12.8 29.3 45.7 47.8 25.0 20.1 1991-92 19 27 97 236 132 320 102 165 350 751 5.4 306 27.7 31.4 37.7 42.6 29.1 22.0 1992-93 22 37 110 253 139 290 87 125 359 705 6.1 5.2 30.6 35.9 38.7 41.1 24.2 17.7 1993-94 20 33 102 308 183 360 107 164 414 865 5.0 308 24.6 35.6 44.2 41.4 26.1 19.0 1994-95 26 59 116 335 156 381 129 164 426 940 6.1 6.9 27.2 35.6 36.6 40.5 30.0 17.4 1995-96 29 69 110 349 159 407 112 175 412 1,004 7.0 26.7 34.8 38.6 40.5 26.8 17.4 1996-97 25 49 89 352 180 426 142 216 436 1,0-43 5.7 4.7 20.4 33.7 41.3 40.8 32.6 20.7 1997-98 23 58 111 382 155 467 130 232 420 1,139 5.7 5.1 26.4 33.5 36.8 41.0 30.9 20.4 Source: Mona Information Technology Services, 1999 myriad illegal activities that are the girlfriends; of proving their manhood and trademark of the hustler and survivor.” heterosexual orientation; of knowing how to withstand hunger and deprivation; of Systemic and Structural Problem: learning from very early how to be tough; of The Jamaican School System is not being able to win at all costs. Those who Male-friendly finish high school are generally very bright, Most Jamaicans are able to see the but find getting a decent job very difficult. relationship between lack of education and Many end up working as manual labourers, the most serious social ills. The fact is that finding it extremely difficult, if not not enough families, groups and impossible to remain untouched by the government agencies have done 56 Male Survivability something about the problem. As is clear in Boys and girls were unnecessarily the literature, the problem of male under- separated in the school environment representation in the education system is including seating arrangements and even not due purely to problems in the in roll call where the boys were separated socialization process. The problems are and their names were called first. There systemic and structural; something is was also separation based on gender in wrong with the entire education system. sporting activities and games. Subject The data 'shout' that Jamaican schools areas were also separated by gender have failed our boys, and even second according to types of occupations and chance programs are designed gender stereotypes associated with such unconsciously for females. As Evans (1999) occupations. found, boys had different experiences than girls in the Jamaican school system. It was also noted that boys and girls Schools were gender coded and exhibited gender-specific behavior within discriminated against boys in a number of the classroom. Boys were the ones who ways, including, teacher-student were likely to be disruptive and to engage interaction, gender stereotyping of in activities unrelated to the formal behavior, academic expectation, corporal curriculum when unsupervised and on punishment, curriculum design and some occasions when supervised, unlike methods of teaching. girls. Using a quantitative survey supported by The report noted the following types of qualitative tools, Evans (1999) sampled behavior: 3,719 students, including 1,557 boys • “The boys give a lot of trouble in (mostly from grades 9 and 11) from 45 class.” secondary schools across Jamaica. There • “During register, the boys fidget, was a great deal of gender differentiation move about and talk among in the secondary schools studied. This was themselves” (while the girls sit due not only to structural forces in the quietly). school but also due to the preferences of • “I saw a group of six boys sculling students who had already internalized devotion, chatting and appearing gender roles and expectations. Gender unconcerned.” distinctions are reflected in curricular and co-curricular activities and in the tasks • “The boys use bad words.” assigned to males and females. Teachers • “The boys are hyperactive. The also interact differently with males and teacher seems to use verbal abuse to females and have higher expectations of shame them in order to get them to be females. quiet. She may not mean it but this is how she responds” (Evans 99:45). 57 Male Survivability In contrast to this, the behavior of females students to excel. For example, a teacher is usually that of conforming. They are was overheard saying to a boy who wanted willing to internalize that which is to leave the classroom early, “Notten no transmitted by the formal school happen to the girls dem, but you want to curriculum. The male peer group is said to leave already” (Evans 99:46). Another be an important component in determining point of concern is that the boys were the anti-school behavior exhibited by judged by standards set by the actions of males. It was evident from information the girls. However, it was interesting to collected in one urban comprehensive high note that there was evidence of school that the genesis of the male culture cooperation between boys and girls usually is linked to gang or crew membership when involved in academic work despite which leads to a situation in which if at least the mentioned antagonism. one member exhibits negative behavior in class then the others follow suit. It was clear that school practices did influence the attitude toward learning and There was evidence of antagonism the ability to internalize educational between boys and girls, and this led to material. School practices refer to: attitude some having unfavorable opinions of each of the staff toward the students and how other. Teachers also encouraged this they interact with each other; interaction of antagonism by dividing classes by gender staff with students; streaming; disciplinary when conducting quizzes and then using and other measures, which directly relate to gender-biased statements to encourage students. TABLE 3.5 Gender Differences in Perceptions of School Practices School Practice Total who % Boys % Girls % X 2 agreed I get beaten at school 498 14.0 281 18.0 217 10.0 56.10* I often think of leaving school because of 216 6.1 123 7.9 93 4.3 34.80* being beaten I don’t like how teachers treat me 907 25.0 455 29.2 452 20.9 39.90* I’d like to be treated with more respect 2,982 80.2 1,245 80.0 1,737 80.4 2.87 I have been insulted by my teachers 197 5.5 110 7.0 87 4.0 54.64* Note: Percentages are calculated on the number of boys and girls in the study * Indicates a statistically significant difference Source: Evans, 1999 58 Male Survivability Five items on the questionnaire were Placement in a stream did not affect designed specifically to examine students’ whether boys felt like they belonged in perceptions of school practices. Table 3.5 school. However, girls were more likely to summarizes the responses. All of the above feel that they did not belong in school if variables except for “desire for more they were in the low stream. This was respect” showed a greater number of boys related to the fact that girls were expected in agreement than of females. The gender more than boys to perform well difference was statistically significant for academically and that boys were placed in the statements, “I often think of leaving areas other than academics that were school because of being beaten”; “I don’t accepted as important for their masculinity, like how teachers treat me”, and, “I have including sports. been insulted by my teachers”. T-tests demonstrated that negative school Parry (1996) also found that boys had practices affected academic practices. problems at school. She found that there existed among boys “an anti-academic As expected, the practice of streaming male sex/gender identity” which was “not meant girls were more represented in the felt to be compatible with either diligent high stream while boys were more study or good grades”. As Parry stated, represented in the low stream. This is teachers’ perceptions and those of boys clearly shown in Table 3.6 below. seemed to be in agreement that masculinity Table 3.612 is not compatible with good grades. Proportion of Boys and Girls by Streams Education is not macho and is dismissed by some male students as effeminate and Sex High Stream Mixed Ability Low Stream 'nerdish'. What is critical here is the fact that N % N % N % boys cannot always rely on their peers for encouragement to do well academically. Girls 709 32.8 1,003 46.5 446 20.7 Masculine identity is therefore an Boys 399 22.7 723 48.3 434 28.0 additional burden a boy has to bear in terms of academic performance. Source: Evans, 1999 Bailey, et al (1996) also stressed the extent “Students in the low stream were more to which boys were disadvantaged in the likely to feel alienated from school. classroom. Males, socialized to be the However, girls appeared to be more leaders, found that at school the female affected by placement in the low stream teacher is boss. They may be physically than boys” (Evans 99:50). mistreated also, including being flogged, 12The original table in Evans (1999) was changed. The one above is weighted due to the fact that there are more boys than girls. The trend however has not changed. 59 Male Survivability aggravating further the psychological “Why were they not in school? Four gave impact of relating to female leadership. the standard explanation –‘no lunch money,’ ‘no clothes,’ one found school The impact of the institutional features boring, another lied about being on described above has been assessed by holiday. Not surprisingly, of the six of them, Figueroa et al. (1996). They found that four attend school sometimes, while the these features translated into higher remaining two had not been in school since benefits derived from the education system grade 2 and grade 3.” for girls than for boys. This in turn leads to greater investment in schooling girls and in “What about the sisters? One of the two fact higher returns on these investments with an uptown father smiled. He is about made by parents. There exists therefore thirteen. “My sister look like she like di logic to invest in girls within the systemically book. Yeah man. She bright.” The Bronx- flawed Jamaican education system. father one put in: ‘yeh, man. Girls love borin stuff.’ The one with both father and The work of Anderson (1997:39) is also mother explains that when things get rough critical. Anderson stated that in April 1995, and they cannot afford to send both his the unemployment rate for teenage sister and himself, they send her, for which workers with no secondary education stood he is glad. ’Sometimes me tell dem fi sen at 38.3 percent, as compared with 49.5 har ‘cause she young. Me can read.’ He is percent for those with four or more years of eleven years old.” secondary schooling. There was a correlation between years of secondary education for girls but not for boys. There Can the Education System remains in Jamaican society a higher Become Gender demand for low-skilled male labor than for female. This serves as a disincentive for Equitable? boys to continue in school. As Chevannes According to Bailey (1996), what needs to (1999) and Gayle (1996) clearly explained, be addressed in the educational arena is a the reality for many boys in working class breaking down of the iron curtain, which communities is that quite often, success in determines the pattern for the curriculum the CXC examination does not guarantee participation for both sexes. A level playing employment. field needs to be created which allows both Chevannes (2001:160) sums up the males and females open access to the problem of male under-representation in range of curriculum options and therefore the school system in the following narrative the freedom to choose career paths and focused on a group of boys in early professions based on inclination and adolescence: aptitude. The right to exercise this choice is as important or even more important than 60 Male Survivability access to a place in school. An issue only abuse must be stopped, and the continuous hinted in the literature is that females find it movement of boys towards sports rather more rewarding to sit male subjects than than a balance of academics and physical for boys to sit female subjects. Clearly then, activities must become unacceptable. the gender imbalance against females in the society backfires against the males in There need to be policies that ensure the education system. If there were equality greater support for struggling parents, for both males and females it would not be especially single mothers, to allow them to a problem for boys to select subjects of the give their children a fair chance in school. humanities without sanction from peers The present school feeding program and and the society. The truth is that male other support is simply not enough. subjects carry more value as they are The country needs an urgent propaganda designed to bring in the money. campaign (as forceful as the National The point is that the educational system in Family Planning Board’s, ‘Two is Better Jamaica needs to change urgently to than Too Many’ slogan) that will strive to become more responsive to the country’s make people recognize that education is future needs. This means more technical more than a means to an end; rather, it is areas must be included. If this were to be also an end in itself. At the same time the done the system would become more government must find ways to provide attractive to males. It must be noted more jobs that will draw on the education however that girls would need to be given a attained by the young people of Jamaica, chance to participate in these areas to stem otherwise education will lose its power as the imbalance of female over-participation the key vehicle for upward social mobility. in low-paying academic areas. Anderson is Bailey’s (1997) conclusion can be adopted correct that the training received in schools here. It must be recognized that gender by males must be linked to the labor equity will not be achieved simply through market. Were this to be done, however, educational reforms. Gender inequality is says Chevannes (1999), it would only meet systemic and structural, and the search for one albeit very important need in the the achievement of greater social equity for construction of male identity: the provider both boys and girls will only be fully role. realized when all other social institutions Open discrimination against males in the give attention to ways in which they classroom in terms of physical and verbal contribute to these inequalities. 61 Male Survivability 62 Male Survivability CHAPTER 4 CRIME AND VIOLENCE 63 Male Survivability 64 Male Survivability We make life really terrible for some decreased to 23 percent. According topeople and then blame them when Harriott (2000), the traditional pattern was they become dangerous.”13 distorted by the political “war” of 1976 – 1980. This distorted ratio has often been In Jamaica, violence – not overall crime – is interpreted by people at home and abroad a major problem. As shown by data from to mean that Jamaica is a high crime area. the UN Surveys on Crime Trends and the Jamaica ranks with the top 10 most violent Operations of the Criminal Justice Systems, countries in the world, and in fact in the top 2000, the per capita crime rate of Jamaica five in the Western Hemisphere. Data from has been among the lowest in the Western the fairly recent “UN Survey of Crime hemisphere for the past two decades. In Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice fact, data from the Statistics Unit, Jamaica Systems” covering the years 1995-1997 Constabulary Force, tell that the crime rate show that Jamaica keeps company with has been stable (for instance it declined crime-ridden South Africa with a 1997 from 2, 220 to 2, 114 per 100, 000 violent crime rate of 60.1 per 100,000 between 1977 and 1994). The persons and cocaine-trafficking Columbia discomforting fact is that over the past three with a rate of 57.9 for the same year. In decades the structure of violence has 1997, when Jamaica had its second changed. The main change has been a highest number of murders (second to sharp shift in the ratio of property to violent 2001) its murder rate even competed with crimes, in favor of the latter. In 1974, Albania, Europe’s country in crisis, both violent crimes accounted for only 10 with rates over 40. There is absolutely no percent of total crimes compared to country of Jamaica’s small size with any property crimes which accounted for 78 comparable murder rates. Table 4.1 percent. Two decades later (1996), violent highlights the frightening reality. Notice crimes had increased to 43 percent of total that while Jamaican security forces have crimes while property crimes had 13Statement made by Norval Morris, see Headley (1994). 65 Male Survivability achieved a major reduction in the number violence (Radcliffe-Brown, 1940). The fact of burglaries and robberies, the same that such physical force can be termed cannot be said for murders, shootings, something other than violence implies that rapes and woundings. there is some idea of social order to which the notion of violence is inextricably Table 4.1 juxtaposed. Total Number of Major Crimes Reported by Offence Type and Corresponding Year, In Jamaica, homicide by the state or for the Period 1995 to 2000 “justifiable homicide” is without competition in the world. International Offence Year human rights agencies began to highlight Type this Jamaican reality in the 1980s. There 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 was in fact, reason for alarm. In 1984 Murder 780 925 1.038 953 849 887 when Jamaica had its highest number of Shootings 1.308 1,727 1,419 1,225 986 1,012 justifiable homicides at 354, police Rape 833 935 875 880 784 870 accounted for over a quarter of them. Burglary – 1,380 1,030 744 453 – Since the 1990s, there have been tremendous efforts to reduce police Robbery 4,424 4,494 3,464 2985 2,392 2,331 killings. Major changes came about with Wounding – 1,321 1,297 1,738 1,625 – the appointment of a new commissioner of police, Colonel McMillan, who demanded Source: Statistics Unit, Jamaica Constabulary Force, 2001. that police killings be examined. Despite his efforts and those of his successor, Francis Forbes, Jamaica’s justifiable According to Riches (1986), when victims homicide rate has been reduced only one- or witnesses invoke the notion of violence, fifth of national rate; the country remains they make a judgement not just that the number one in the world in this regard. action concerned causes physical hurt but One of the reasons Jamaica’s rank has not also that it is illegitimate. Yet, even in the changed though is the recent success in Western world “physical hurt done to South Africa (the major competitor in this others” counts as violence only in certain regard) in reducing police killings. Table contexts. To illustrate this point, the state 4.2 below outlines the trend of police can execute grievous “physical hurt to killings between 1983 and 2000. citizens,” without it being recorded as 66 Male Survivability TABLE 4.2 No other social concerns are as Number of Civilians Shot and Killed by Police, 1983 to 2000 differentially distributed by age, gender, class and geographical location as are Year Number those of crime and violence. According to 1983 196 the anthropologist Clifford Geertz (1973), phenomena have specific latitudes. Let us 1984 354 therefore locate the Jamaican violence 1985 210 problem. 1986 178 1987 205 • It is urban, centered in Kingston, but also includes communities on the 1988 181 edge of the suburbs. 1989 162 • It occurs largely in extremely poor, 1990 148 densely populated communities that 1991 178 are separated and segregated from 1992 145 middle class ones. 1993 120 • It is recent – a post 1970 1994 125 phenomenon. 1995 132 • It is committed overwhelmingly by 1996 148 males against males. 1997 149 • It is largely a phenomenon of youth. 1998 145 1999 151 An Urban Poverty Crisis 2000 140 Anyone who has a working idea of the Source: Statistics Unit, Jamaica Constabulary Force, 2001 history of Jamaica would find it ridiculous if it were suggested that there was no such In its various forms (political, economic, thing as rural violence. Undoubtedly there domestic and interpersonal), violence is on has been industrial unrest in the sugar belt the brink of getting beyond the control of areas in response to extremely harsh the Jamaican authorities. The government working conditions. There have also been has begun to wake up to the reality that the occasional community floggings and rare, situation cannot get much worse as the but nonetheless frightening, lynching of homicide statistics in Kingston easily farm thieves from Kingston who prey on compare with countries experiencing civil humble rural folk. However these incidents wars. The problem needs to be addressed have been spontaneous and widespread as a crisis. and therefore cannot be compared to violence in Kingston. Violence in Jamaica 67 Male Survivability today is therefore an urban crisis. It is true the heart of the violent crime area and that the problem is often exaggerated by corresponds perfectly to the heart of the the media which is controlled and operated urban poverty map of the country. Notice by uptown dwellers who are often either that together these four divisions accounted prejudiced or simply misinformed. for 54 percent of homicides in the country Nonetheless there is much to fear about in 1997. What is also important is that this “downtown” or the inner city of the small area was home to approximately Kingston Metropolitan Area. 220,000 people, or 8% of the population in 1991. It is clearly the most densely Table 4.3, which shows where the problem populated area of the country. is located, tells a frightening story. According to the 1998 Crime Report As Chevannes and Gayle (1998) found, (Statistical Department, Crime Office, some communities outside this area also 1999), about 82 percent of all homicides face the grave problems of crime and committed in the country in 1997 and 76 violence despite their location. They bear percent in 1998 occurred in Greater the same inner city characteristics, though Kingston, which is the home of just over a in varying degrees: third of the country’s population. What is also interesting to note is that the 1. Dense population, with over 60 overwhelming majority of the remaining 18 percent under the age of 30; and 24 percent of homicides for those 2. Unemployment rates of over 30 respective years was committed in the new percent (twice the country's urban centers. Notice that St. James has the average); highest rate of homicides outside of 3. Low education, with 50 percent not Greater Kingston. This is because it is the completing secondary school; home of the second city, Montego Bay, where there are obvious slums. What is not 4. Poor housing, with over 40 percent explicit from the table is the fact that the in tenements, a third in one- divisions of Kingston Central, Kingston bedroom dwellings, and the Eastern, Kingston Western and St. Andrew obvious presence of shacks or South cover a rather small area described improvised dwellings; by the social development commission as 5. Poor sanitation, with over 5 percent the industrial belt between six miles on the without flush toilets or water closets, west and Rockfort on the east. This is a more than a third without piped narrow strip of just over eight miles in water, and with skips overflowing length and less than two miles wide. The and garbage on the streets and in area is about 14 square miles with gullies; Kingston Public Hospital at its center. This is 68 Male Survivability 6. Poor infrastructure, in the form of Roots of the Recent Male poor or no telephone service, poorly serviced roads and pathways, few, if Youth Violence Crisis any, active institutions except Up to the late 1970s, Kingston was a safe political ones. city that people were proud to call home. In TABLE 4.3 the year of the 1980 general elections, over Number of Murders Reported Islandwide, By 800 people were killed. It is thought that Administrative Division, 1 January to 27 September 1997 compared to 1 January to 27 September 1998 many of Kingston's youth had been called upon to act as mercenaries during this Administrative 1997 1998 period. (Gunst, 1999) There was evidence Division that drugs were being used by a number of Reported Percent Report Percent the youth who carried out the brutal killings Kingston Central 44 6% 48 7% of 1980. How else can one explain the Kingston Eastern 58 8% 76 11% burning of the Eventide Home in which 153 Kingston Western 135 18% 65 9% elderly poor perished? (Chevannes 1999) St. Andrew Central 47 6% 59 9% People began to look beyond the cocaine St. Andrew North 66 11% 73 11% and political warfare theories in the 1990s St. Andrew South 164 22% 100 14% when the number of murders exceeded St. Catherine North 72 9% 60 9% 900 without an election and without St. Catherine South 38 5% 47 7% evidence of drugs as the major factor. As expressed by the Jamaican public, “those SUB-TOTAL METRO 624 82% 528 76% born in the city after the 1970s don't seem St. James 28 4% 28 4% to know how it feel to live in peace” Trelawny 5 1% 8 1% (Chevannes 1999). Westmoreland 8 1% 20 3% Hanover 9 1% 6 1% Chevannes (1999:19) outlined the St. Mary 12 2% 9 1% problem in his Grace Kennedy Foundation St. Ann 12 2% 26 4% lecture: Portland 11 1% 9 1% “The worry is that a new and different Manchester 13 2% 10 1% kind of human being has been bred Clarendon 18 2% 17 2% and let loose upon the society, whom St. Elizabeth 10 1% 7 1% we do not know, whose actions are St. Thomas 12 2% 23 3% consciously different. Almost as SUB-TOTAL RURAL 138 18% 163 24% worrying as the atrocities themselves GRAND TOTAL 726 100% 691 100% is the fact that increasingly they no longer chill. People have grown Source: Statistical Department, Crime Office, numb, the once-too-often victims of Jamaica, 1999. shock. There are no more tears.” 69 Male Survivability Over 10,000 Jamaicans have been Males against Males deported from abroad mainly for criminal offenses since 1995 (Statistics Unit, Table 4.4 reveals that women are not Jamaica Constabulary Force, 2001). immune to violence. By any standard, 826 Many believe that their presence has cases of reported rape is an extremely high helped to exacerbate the violence in figure especially in a society that is so Jamaica in recent years. It is argued that matrifocal. There is also a high rate of the greatest problem lies in the fact that a physical abuse of women, and not to make number of those deported were not born in mention of this would be unpardonable. Jamaica though they were of Jamaican Data from the Jamaica injury surveillance parentage. They find it extremely difficult to system tell us that about a third of all adjust and manifest migration frustration. injuries inflicted on females are done by What is even more critical is that they also their spouses. The good news though is that teach those born in Jamaica aspects of the adolescent males are increasingly trade of crime and violence never becoming aware that the practice of experienced in the country before. abusing females is not normal. We will return to this subject later. TABLE 4.4 Arrest for Major Crimes, by Age and Type, for 1996 and 1997 Age Murder Robbery Rape Shooting 1996 1997 1996 1997 1996 1997 1996 1997 <16 8(2.0) 8(1.6) 68(2.9) 30(2.2) 51(6.2) 19(2.9) 11(1.3) 6(0.8) 16-20 77(20.2) 111(22.5) 430(18.2) 267(19.7) 140(16.9) 79(11.9) 238(27.1) 195(29.6) 21-25 143(37.4) 141(29.1) 860(36.5) 416(30.7) 210(25.4) 165(24.8) 326(37.2) 260(36.8) 26-30 76(19.9) 125(25.3) 710(30.1) 338(24.9) 180(21.8) 144(21.7) 132(15.1) 145(20.5) 31> 78(20.5) 109(21.5) 290(12.3) 306(22.5) 228(29.7) 358(38.7) 170(19.3) 101(12.3) TOTAL 382(100.0) 494(100.0) 2358(100.0) 1357(100.0) 826(100.0) 665(100.0) 877(100.0) 707(100.0) Source: Statistical Department, Crime Office, Jamaica. 1998. 70 Male Survivability The glaring fact nonetheless is that the (Ministry of Health 2001), the frequency of violence carried out by young males in the violence-related injuries in Jamaica is quite Kingston Metropolitan Area is worrying. Some 6,380 cases were seen at overwhelmingly against other male youth. the Accident and Emergency Departments For example, in 1996, 920 persons were at the Kingston Public, Cornwall Regional murdered. Of this number 88 were women and May Pen hospitals in the short period and 16 were children. The majority, 816 or of December 1999 to May 2000. Two- 89 percent were men, and three-quarters thirds of the victims were males. Males were below the age of 30. accounted for 82 percent of all admissions for violence-related injuries during the This does not include those killed by the period. The data clearly support public police – the so-called justifiable homicides. knowledge that violence against males is It is not surprising therefore that the 1998 perpetrated by other males. There were World Development Report informed us relatively few cases where women inflicted that 4 percent of the Jamaican population injuries on males. In fact, only 4 percent of has no hope of living to see the age of 40. It male violence-related injuries came from is safe to assume that this group is mainly their spouses. A total of 70 percent of all comprised of the youth of the inner cities of injuries inflicted by acquaintances was Greater Kingston. Clearly this must be the inflicted on males, as were 82 percent of reason Laurie Gunst (1999) entitled her all injuries inflicted by strangers. work on the Jamaican posses “Born Fi Dead.” The great contradiction of it all is Table 4.5 tells us that 88 percent of the fact that Jamaica boasts one of the admissions to the three main penal highest life expectancies in the developing institutions in the year 2000 were males. In world. Women have a life expectancy of 78 fact, the proportion of males to females years and men 72. It is sad to hear people arrested overall is even higher. Men in the troubled communities speak bluntly dominate penal institutions though this is that they pray to God asking Him not to not peculiar to Jamaica. The figure for New give them boys, as they could not York is over 90 percent overall. Not only do guarantee a boy's survival. This is the sad men commit more violent crimes than reality many inner city youth have come to females, but their punishments are usually accept – that death sometimes comes even more severe than those meted out to before life. “When life is not worth one shit women for similar crimes. In 1996 a there is not much sense in fearing death in significant 3.4 percent of all males the search to make it worth something” convicted received sentences from 10 years (Gayle, in press). to life imprisonment to the death penalty compared to none for females, despite the According to the Jamaica Injury fact that a few women committed crimes of Surveillance System: Injury Report 2001 71 Male Survivability comparable magnitude. The fact is that the and Protection inform us that adolescents system of law finds it extremely difficult to are victims of one of five violence-related give women full sentences, especially death injuries. Consequently, for the past few sentences, due to the fact that women very years homicides have been the leading rarely commit murder, and when they do cause of deaths in adolescents in Jamaica. take the life of another, it is in self-defense TABLE 4.5 or in moments of passion. The year 2000 Numbers of Males and Females in Prison for Various has been considered a rare case year in Sentence Lengths: 2000. that a woman was given the death sentence Length of Sentence by Institution and Sex, January to and three others were sentenced to ten December, 2000 years each. At the same time over 135 men Length of Sentence St. CACC & F.A.A.C.C Grand received sentences of over ten years, TSACC Males Females Total including 53 to life, four indefinite and 13 Less than 1 month 14 2 18 death. 1-3 months 393 47 440 4-6 months 343 88 431 Adolescent Victims and 7-9 months 127 23 150 Perpetrators 10-12 months 224 37 261 If we examine the data in Table 4.4 we will 13 -24 months 334 50 384 realize that it is the youth who kill. Notice 25 months - 3 yrs 97 4 101 that in 1996 and 1997 over three-quarters 37 months -10 yrs. 242 8 250 (79.5 and 78.5 percent respectively) of the arrests for murder were of persons under 10 Years 62 3 65 the age of 30. Note also the fact that a fifth Life 53 – 53 of all of these categories of crime are Death 13 1 14 committed by persons 20 years and younger. The same can be said for other G.G.’s Pleasure 3 – 2 violent crimes such as shootings and Indefinite 4 – 4 robberies. Only as it applies to rape do we TOTALS 1909 263 2171 see men over age 30 significantly involved. Table 4.7 shows us that the situation is not Source: Statistics Unit, Jamaica Constabulary Force. 2000. changing for the better. What is alarming is St. CACC – St. Catherine Adult Correctional Centre TSACC – Tower Street Adult Correctional Centre that the vast majority of violent crimes FAACC – Forte Augusta Adult Correctional Centre committed by male youth are against other G.G. – Governor General (head of state) adolescents. The Jamaica Injury Of grave concern is the early age at which Surveillance System Injury Report and other adolescent males get involved in major data from the Division of Health Promotion violent crimes. The data scream at us that 72 Male Survivability there is indeed a male dilemma in terms of TABLE 4.7 Total Number of Teenagers (Ages 12-19) Arrested for violence. Notice that more than a half of Major Crimes in Jamaica: 1992 to 1999 crimes committed by juvenile males are in the major category, compared to less than Years Murder Shooting Rape/ Robbery Total one fifth (18.7%) for female juveniles. CarnalAbuse Other figures of interest are highlighted. 1992 21 101 79 337 538 TABLE 4.6 Reasons for which Male and Female Juveniles 1993 42 105 86 380 613 (under age 17) Appeared before the Courts: 2000 1994 57 130 74 387 648 Major Offences Males Females 1995 100 198 120 428 846 Number Percent Number Percent 1996 85 249 191 498 1,023 Murder 9 0.7 0 0 1997 119 201 98 297 715 Robbery with 9 0.7 1 0.1 Aggravation 1998 100 225 132 385 842 Rape 5 0.4 NA NA 1999 106 140 167 274 687 Carnal Abuse 20 1.7 0 0 Total 630 1,349 947 2,986 5,912 Larceny 109 9.5 17 2.4 Source: Statistical Department of the Crime Office Breaking/Enter/ 24 2.1 6 0.8 Larceny Indecent Assault 36 3.1 2 0.3 Causes of Male Youth Unlawful possession 6 0.5 0 0 Violence Wounding 150 13.0 55 7.7 Assault 36 3.1 3 0.4 A number of explanations have been Assauly of Bodily 60 5.2 28 3.9 advanced to explain why violence exists Harm and more so why it is a male phenomenon Dangerous Drugs 95 8.2 7 0.9 disproportionately perpetrated by the Malicious Destr. of 23 1.9 11 1.5 young. A significant number of studies has Property been done in the area of male violence in Other Major 24 2.1 5 0.7 Offences Jamaica. In fact this is the most studied Total Major 606 52.2 135 18.7 aspect of the Jamaican male. We will begin Offences with cultural-psychological explanations, Total Minor 546 47.8 583 81.3 then shift to historical construction, then to Offences sociological and finally to economic GRAND TOTAL 1,152 100.0 718 100.0 reasons. Source: Statistical Department of the Crime Office. 2000. 73 Male Survivability Aggression Identity Formation: Mirroring, Identity Negotiation According to Fernald and Meeks-Gardener and Internalised Oppression (1997), boys may be at greater risk for aggressive behavior because they are According to Erickson, no other time in more likely to be temperamentally difficult, one’s life is it as important to define oneself to have problems with adaptive behavior vis-a-vis the society at large as in (Prior et al, 1992) and are the perpetrators adolescence. It seems that one of the and victims of aggressive behavior. Studies greatest developmental tasks of this stage (Matteson, 1980; Kreuz and Rose, 1972 is to forge a sense of identity. Suarez- included) seem to be inconclusive as to Orozco spoke of how difficult this identity whether male biological differences negotiation becomes for segregated or account significantly for their tendencies displaced youth. When there is too much toward violence. They show no strong cultural dissonance, negative social correlation between testosterone and mirroring and role confusion, an aggression (Schaal, 1996). It seems adolescent will find it hard to develop a therefore that while there is an argument sense of self. Even when the parents for genetic factors, factors such as provide positive mirroring, it is often not socialization and environment seem to be enough to compensate for the distorted more important in explaining why males reflections they receive daily in the media, behave more violently than females. the classroom and the street. McDougall Fromm (1973) spoke of reactive (1993) found that in black Baltimore the aggression or malignant aggression in media was one of the most destructive humans, especially males, due to problems mirrors. He writes (p.4), “the newspaper inherent in the construction of Western and the T.V. give us a lot of negative societies. Men are likely to be aggressive attention, but they're not interested when due to the impact of loneliness, anything positive happens.” separateness, alienation, anomie and powerlessness. Socialized less to relate to Let us examine Suarez-Orozco's discussion these Western constructs and to rely on the as it applies to inner city youth in Jamaica. support network of the family, males can Adolescents face immense stereotyping in become quite aggressive in response to Jamaica. As discussed earlier, those of the these existential conflicts. inner city are so stigmatized they are not employed in jobs of quality, even if they qualify. They are feared and sentenced as untrustworthy and dangerous, without proof. They are segregated and treated as outcasts in their country of birth. It was a shock five years ago, during the urban 74 Male Survivability poverty and violence study to discover that often they succumbed to the prevailing there were youth who lived in Kingston who stereotypes and failed to construct the had never been uptown (see “Chevannes counter-definitions for themselves without and Levy, 1996). How do these charged which they could not heal. Young also attitudes and rampant hostilities affect the raised the issue of recruitment for drug youth? According to cultural psychologists, gangs or into drug use. If stereotypes a youth can resist or withstand the become extreme in the public, a person of pressures, but the most frequent response a particular set of circumstances might is internalization. He or she responds with automatically be recruited into a particular self-doubt and shame and agrees with the behavior group, as this is where he is low standard of behavior or achievement expected to go. The argument therefore is set by the sources of his or her mirrors or he that if a youth is expected to be aggressive or she sets poor standards for him or he may become aggressive as both directly herself. Quite often inner city male and indirectly the mirrors of society and his adolescents respond violently to show that peers put pressure on him to internalize this they are really “bad”, a quality often expected behavior. There has to be strong esteemed in their environment. For them motivation therefore for him to be different the consequence of internalized oppression – to develop counter images of himself. is often worse. The impact of the media on the male youth A Historical Perspective: is exacerbated by the low expectation of Construction of Male Violence some teachers who set one standard for Scholars such as Beckford (1999), Alleyne girls and a lower one for boys in terms of (1996), Patterson (1967) and Smith (1965) behavior and academic performance. The argue strongly for a historical perspective observation of Odette Parry in her 1996 to be included in any explanation of social research in Jamaican schools was that problems in Jamaica today. Violence was masculinity for adolescent boys is a drama the main mode of control on the plantation enacted, a mask of the real teenager during slavery, and, not surprisingly, Afro- whose life is filled with fear, stress and Jamaicans responded by revolting against strain to measure up to the expectations set the planter authority. Hence the national by peers, older men and the society at heroes of Jamaica were resistors. After large. Obviously then stereotypes do not emancipation in 1838, the British planter help these boys. class relied heavily on their well- Young, a British criminologist (1976), drew constructed political network to maintain on the same social psychology construct to control. The governor, the assembly, the explain why some drug takers never governor's council, and the local militia all returned to normal life. He explains that served the dual purpose of protecting the 75 Male Survivability planters and controlling the freed Afro- frequent and direct action maintain Jamaicans. For more than a century – contact with the native and advise him 1838 to universal adult suffrage in 1944 – by means of rifle-buts and napalm not this group of freed people had no to budge... The agents of the representation and was abused in a variety government speak with pure force. of ways, including the use of physical The intermediary does not lighten the violence by the planter class. This was a oppression, nor seek to hide the century of unrest as the Afro-Jamaicans domination; he shows them up and resisted harsh treatment. Two major puts them into practice with the clear uprisings occurred during the period. Paul conscience of an upholder of the Bogle led the first in 1865. The freed men peace; yet he is the bringer of violence took up arms to compel the planter class to into the home and into the mind of the listen to their plight. Despite the success of native.” this revolt, it gave the planter class reason to construct a paramilitary police force The actions of government agents of force designed to violently restrict the masses have clearly served the purpose of while protecting the propertied class. reinforcing the pain of the colonial history Paradoxically, this militant band of street of Jamaica. It is fair to say that they have executioners comprised of Afro-Jamaicans led the natives to think that society was used to crush their own people. Any form of meant to be violent; that it was an effective open protest could be met with instant way to achieve social goals or to effect death, especially if it threatened the life of control. This becomes very clear when you the planters. This legacy still haunts the examine any of the many informal systems Jamaica Constabulary Force as they are of justice formed in the inner city of largely seen as the oppressive agents of the Jamaica. I have been told repeatedly by ruling class. It is therefore no surprise that inner city youth that the violence carried out the Jamaican police bear the traditional in these community systems is learned from name of “Babylon”. In 1938 when the society (Levy, Gayle and Stultz 2001). In second uprising occurred, the level of Jamaica, laws have been largely followed violence used by the state against out of fear of the power of the ruling class disadvantaged sugar workers was rather than from commitment. The poor phenomenal. maintain that very little or not enough has changed in terms of their human rights In accounting for the violence in some since the British left in 1962. They argue developing countries Fanon (1963:29) strongly that the police and soldiers still stated the following: teach the same lesson – that violence is power. “The police and the soldier, by their immediate presence and their 76 Male Survivability Let us be frank: violence is central to the Socialization: Gender Division and construction of Jamaica. Violence has been Social Capital used effectively against the masses for centuries, and they have learnt how to Chevannes (2001,1999, 1996), Brown respond in like manner. Today, violence and Chevannes (1998) and Boxill (1994), remains a means of expressing frustration, among other scholars, argue that there is a of dealing with disagreement and of problem in the socialization process of the achieving economic and social gains. As is Jamaican male that accounts for his violent clear in the work of Levy, Gayle and Stultz behavior. Chevannes (1999), Evans (1999) (2001), male violence is often a political and Figueroa and Handa (1996) point to issue, not in the sense of party tribalism but the low educational achievement of men as an expression of frustration at the due to poor socialization and the lack of powerlessness of the black male created in family investment and support for them. slavery and maintained in the present class According to Chevannes (1999), male structure. criminal, educational and sexual problems in Jamaica are linked together as vital There is no doubt that the social structure of elements in the social construction of Jamaica fosters violence. It embodies, masculine identity. For many men, meeting sharp class differences; an almost the demands of a male identity (to be ineffective and partial system of law; tough, to survive, to be a protector and intensely concentrated poverty; a major provider) is a far greater moral imperative gap between material goals and the legal than the virtues of honesty, respect for means to achieve them; the socialization of property or respect for life. males to be “tough” and to resist authority. When these factors are analyzed we Drawing on publications from the Gender recognize that the means of expression and Socialization Project, the following is a achievement open to the poor urban youth summary of key issues that have a bearing are extremely limited when compared to on the violent behavior of working class their uptown counterparts. Poor male youth boys. are therefore easily drawn into political 1. The socialization process of boys is warfare as consciously and unconsciously aimed at making them tough. This is they seek to change the socio-political evident in the division of labor and structure. Political power is not, however, the severity of physical punishment an end in itself though some level of meted out to boys. “Boys generally political power is seen as necessary to receive heavier punishment, both achieve upward social mobility. from mothers and fathers. The most common form of discipline is beating with the hand or with an 77 Male Survivability instrument such as a belt or stick. crime, as some persons assume, but This harsher treatment is defended equally for the guarantee of respect as toughening boys, as part of their (Chevannes 1999). need to be able to survive in the rough outside world”. (Brown and We cannot over-emphasize the difference Chevennes 1998: 30) between raising a boy and a girl in the Jamaican inner city setting. Here, “If boys 2. Boys suffer greater deprivation do not drop out of school to earn for where there is a scarcity of themselves or their families, they often resources. When parents cannot leave school with few skills that can be afford to send both to school, the turned to ready profit. ‘By any means girl attends and the boy does not. necessary’ for some becomes an He learns instead to survive and in alternative strategy … and on the street, some cases helps to provide for his instructions for these skills are readily school-attending sister(s). available”(Brown and Chevannes 1998: 3. From very early on a boy learns the 31). value of money. This is how he The Caribbean region has seen immense “makes life” and gains the respect shifts in gender relations. In Jamaica, and attention of women. To do women are more educated and better otherwise is to be considered trained than men, often because poor “worthless”. It is not surprising families (particularly single mothers) rely therefore that meeting the demands on school-age boys for economic support. of a male identity is so important to Many poorly trained working class men are him. frustrated. “At the core of these troubles is 4. While the girl is sheltered, the street the exploding of the myth of the male is the boy's domain: “The bull is breadwinner, the persistence of loose so tie your heifer.” Running unemployment and the feminization of free in this unsupervised manner, some aspects of manufacturing and of the boy develops the risk-taking certain jobs in the Caribbean region.” experiences necessary for crime. (Lewis 1996: 11-12). The dilemma stems Often his peers become more from the fact that despite the shift the man important as socializing and is still expected to be the breadwinner. This controlling agents than his parents. is clearly borne out in the recent Gender Parents call such peer influence bad Socialization Project. Our boys have to face company. With the respect of his this dilemma as they grow up. peers now so important, a gun becomes equally important in the In most settings in Jamaica, a child is inner city not for the sole purpose of socialized by a network of social agencies 78 Male Survivability including the community. In the inner city, explanation for a significant number of parents feel increasingly helpless against inner city communities that have relatively external factors as they relate to raising a low levels of violence. Data from Levy et al boy. Moser and Holland (1997) found out (2001) seem to confirm an observation that inner cities often lack the social capital made by Chevannes and Gayle (1998) that necessary to create an environment for some communities possess very strong effective child rearing. Social capital leadership and are united in the includes the “skills and knowledge, health, upbringing of their youth. Levy et al (2001) self esteem and social networks of found that for these reasons a few districts communities”. (Seymour 2000: 6) Seymour of the Greater August Town area were not argued that strong social capital leads to as involved as the other sections in the lower crime; unfortunately, it is those with community war that persisted between the fewest resources who are least able to 1993 and 1998. It is important to note here tap it. that the people of the districts that were not involved were not in a better economic While the lack of social capital contributes position than those of the areas that were at to violence, violence in turn erodes existing war. The fact is they possessed social unity social capital and spirals into further that had helped to cushion the effects of violence. Violence erodes social urban poverty and held their families relationships, not only through death but together through the period of turmoil. In also by restricting physical mobility and by sum, where there exists no alternative and increasing tension. Communities in which the socializing agents reinforce violence as people care for each other and raise each a part of male identity, youth will be violent. other's children are forced to change when there is an outbreak of violence. Even living The Yard versus the Street arrangements change during periods of 14 violence, which results in immense “The yard is the only place where mothers frustration and anger (Moser and Holland are able to control the socialization of the 1997). Boys are drawn into community children. Not only because they have them warfare as they are told explicitly that they within sight or earshot, but also because of are the protectors of their community; to be the sense of responsibility which other otherwise is to be other than male. adults in the yard exercise towards younger children. As Erna Brodber (1975) noted, it is It is important to note that it is possible for an important social space for settling communities to have strong social networks interpersonal and other problems among despite poverty. This is a possible women. People who are unable to get 14The yard is a Jamaican term used to refer to the confines of the home but can supercede the concept of home to be the space within the boundaries of a separated or fenced area in which families reside. In tenement situations in urban Jamaica several families can be situated in one yard. This is often a source of conflict. 79 Male Survivability along with others in the same prepubescent male, only to release him a circumstances and surroundings are pubescent boy fully socialized into values, considered selfish.” predispositions and behaviour that leave many parents, the mothers especially, at a “What then does the street represent? By loss as to what to do to counteract them” street it is meant all that space outside the (Chevannes 2001: 173-174). confines of the yard. It is a somewhat residual category ... From the viewpoint of Unstable Homes the yard it refers also to the shops, bars and street corners. Compared to the tidiness Using a sample of 140 institutionalized and pride in the yard, the street strikes a Jamaican male adolescents, Crawford- stark contrast: potholes everywhere, Brown (1997) studied conduct disorder. uncollected garbage and sometimes a This she defined, drawing on McMahon broken sewage main overflowing through a and Wells (1991), as “a pathological state manhole” (Chevannes 2001: 169-173). within which delinquent acts take place”. One important variable in the development Chevannes got it correct when he of conduct disorder in the young is child- established that there is a struggle between rearing practices. These are evident in such the yard and the street to socialize children. things as conflict in the home and harsh The critical issue here though is the fact that disciplinary actions. the yard is the central area of socialization for the girl, while the street is the central “Structural factors such as separation of area of socialization for the boys in working parents, separation from parents, and class communities. It must be said here (as single-parent household; and functional will be discussed further in the next chapter) factors such as degree of parental discord, that boys in the suburban communities are presence of positive parental role model(s), at a major advantage as the street is less and the consistency and severity of powerful there than in the inner cities. The discipline all may contribute to conduct street as a force in the socialization of disorder in childhood. Specific biological males is particularly strong in poor areas, variables as well as group variables are in households headed by single mothers also implicated in the development of and where the social capital is weak. conduct disorder” (Crawford-Brown 1997: 207). “‘Di good tings wha mi learn mi learn dem a mi yaad,’ not the street. This implies that the “The statistical analysis pointed to a street is more of a bad socializing agency number of specific structural and functional than good. It is the young men who control family factors associated with the presence the street, regulate its flow of life, make it of conduct disorder. The structural family safe for some, unsafe for others, engulf the variables that showed significant relationships to the presence of conduct 80 Male Survivability disorder were: absence of mother, little or on delinquent behavior (Bandura and lack of contact with mother, and changes in Walters, 1959). In that study, it was evident living arrangements. The functional family that 76.7% of respondents with conduct variable that proved to be most significant disorders were exposed to negative role and that showed a moderate degree of models while only 23.3% of those without association with the presence of conduct negative role models had conduct disorder was the presence of negative disorders. Fathers comprised 70% of the parental role models. One could argue group of negative role models, which that the problems relating to family suggests that the relationship that children functioning (e.g., the presence of negative have with their fathers does influence parental role models) may also have led to conduct disorder. other problems relating to family structure, such as frequent changes in the youth’s Crawford-Brown (1997) cited Brodber living arrangements.” (page 214) 1972 as stating that there is a tendency to give troubled children over to the care of The findings suggest that the absence of the the state. This prompted the author to test if mother was related to the presence of there is a relationship between the conduct disorder. However, the presence of presence of conduct disorder and the the father seemed to be of little significance stability of the parental home. Eighty in affecting conduct disorder. Even though percent of children in the study group were the presence of the father seems to be an living without parents prior to being insignificant variable, when paired with the institutionalized compared to 20% in the presence of the mother and joint parental comparison group. The data showed that contact with the child, it becomes a 91.7% of the children comprising the study significant variable in influencing conduct group had two to six changes in their disorder. The absence of the mother has parental living arrangements. The frequent increasingly become an issue in Jamaica. It changes in living arrangements may have arises from the sad reality that many affected the quality of relationships mothers have had to migrate in search of children formed with parents (page 217). jobs, leaving their children to be raised by Crawford-Brown cites Bynum and the extended family or sometimes close Thompson (1992) among others as having friends. This is especially so in situations established a link between conduct where the father does not support the disorder and insecure attachment of child. children with the significant others, usually their parents, in the socialization process. The presence of a negative parental role model can be an important factor in the Conduct disorder is prompted by biological development of a conduct disorder; this factors that determine temperament and is view is supported by social learning theory affected by the family and by other agents 81 Male Survivability of socialization such as the peer group and the school. It appears that the absence of a stable maternal figure, inadequate contact Jail as a New Home between mother and child, poor parental “One of the most glaring weaknesses of role models and instability in living Jamaican society is the seeming inability to arrangements seem to contribute to the take care of and protect children according presence and severity of conduct disorder to the most basic international, regional or (Crawford-Brown, 1999). The presence of national standards. In the case of our so- a father, while not as critical as that of called normal child population, we are mother, should not be ignored. If he lives in adept at abusing them, and then we harmony with the mother this is absolutely provide few workable systems for either positive in the growth of the child. On the healing or redress. One of the other hand, if his main function in the home manifestations of institutional abuse is the is one of creating conflict, he serves a better fact that several of our children each year purpose by being physically absent. The are interned in jails because of a shortage presence of the father has been a topical of childcare facilities” (Crawford-Brown issue for some time in the discussion of 1999). violence and conduct disorder. In a country where a third of the population Reverend Ernle Gordon (2001) stated, “The is comprised of children below age 12, why male role model is absent from the family should jails be sometimes used to culture in Jamaica and we are paying for temporarily hold children because places this because the socialization process is of safety are full? Crawford-Brown either absent or weak.” Drawing on studies reminded us of the degree of abuse done at the University of the West Indies, he children suffer in these lock-ups, including pointed out that as early as the 1970s an 11-year-old girl raped in a police Jamaica had some 92,000 young people station while awaiting a transfer to a place left to look after themselves while their of safety. And what of the boys who learn fathers had migrated to other countries in better ways of using violence as a tool of order to fulfill their primary role of survival in jails? There is absolutely no time economic provider. Using the work of to waste. The calls for better child George Beckford and Orlando Patterson, protection systems in Jamaica need to be Reverend Gordon highlighted that this heeded now. pattern of paternal absence was designed by the planters, but needs to be dealt with The Media now.15 15See the Daily Observer, April 25, 2001, page 7. 16Reverend Gordon, ibid. 82 Male Survivability “Violence pervades every section of the youth. It is naïve to view dons as a bunch of media to the point where even the cartoons criminals who go in search of the sons of are not exempt.”16 (Reverend Gordon ibid) the innocent. Quite often the dons represent both good and bad in their The force of the electronic and print media communities. In essence they are often cannot be ignored in our discussion of quite attractive to both male and female factors contributing to violent behavior in youth. As Harriott (2000: 23) put it, “The our youth. Crawford-Brown (1999) drug dons often enjoy high status and are expressed frankly that the media should seen as models of successful adaptation to take a positive role in sensitizing youth today's urban realities.” Dons do not only about violence without breaking codes of use coercive power to recruit youth into ethics set to protect our children. The radio crime; they often use charm. It is not and television should also take greater uncommon to find dons who reward hard responsibility for the programs aired. While work, innovation and honesty, traits that controls on cable are more problematic, at they themselves do not display. The same least local programs on cables should be don who gives the order for an informer to monitored to protect children from viewing be killed quite often is the builder of the unnecessary extremes of sex and violence. basic school or the founder of the There has been much concern about the homework center and the lunch money lyrics of Jamaican dancehall Reggae and project. He is the charmer and the killer. Rap from North America. There is no clear Harriott (2000:23) described the don as policy to sanction those songs that explicitly “both criminal and police, victimizer and promote violence. The harsh reality is that provider, aggressor and defender, political often songs that do not receive airplay due terrorist and crusading general.” He is able to unsuitable lyrics often out-sell many that to charm the weak and to scare the “wanna are considered uplifting. It is therefore a be brave”. In the absence of strong social difficult task to control the music industry in capital, he becomes the owner of the Jamaica. community – the “dad” – and obedience to The Don him becomes an expectation. The sons of the community are attracted to climb the We cannot help but make special mention ladder of power from little sprats to of the don as an agent of socialization hardened second-class criminals or shottas separate from parents, school, church and with the aim to become dons themselves. It community. In Jamaica, the don is an is common to find sprats and shottas killing institution. The benefactors of organized each other as well as those who oppose violence are the dons and the “shotta and their dads, creating mayhem in once quiet sprats” that they use as ”press-triggers” to communities. shoot, maim and kill the community's 83 Male Survivability The evidence of the don as a forceful agent The fact that many inner city people of socialization is well documented. The relocate to peaceful middle-income Gender Socialization Project (see also communities and are never recognized is Chevannes 2001) from as early as 1994 in proof enough. preliminary papers made the point of dons carefully selecting the brightest of high Drawing on Durkheim and Marx, Merton school dropouts for work in the drug (1968) produced an extensive discussion of industry. Crawford-Brown (1999:83), in social deviance in which Western societies her popular work “Who will Save the are presented as materialistic with Children?” described the dons as one of particular success goals but without the the new agents of socialization. She legal means for all to achieve them. This related the story of a fourteen-year-old boy leaves the excluded individuals or groups who was recruited by a don and who was to respond in one of five ways, four of forced to watch the rape of a young which are deviant. They may conform and teenaged girl as part of his toughening-up seek to achieve these goals by normative experience. She further documented how a means, though with no guarantee of mother was stopped by a don from success. Merton discussed the four ways in disciplining her son because according to which individuals or groups may deviate as the don, “No maada, we have ‘im in follows. training, you no deal wid im’, leave dat to 1. Innovation. This is an attempt to we.” achieve material goals by any The Economics of Violence means possible. This is most likely to be selected by persons of the lowest Much of human action seems to be driven stratum who are least likely to by economic motives, beginning with succeed otherwise due to problems survival. It would seem that man will in their socialization. manipulate whatever means are made 2. Ritualism. This is especially the available within the material and response of lower middle class knowledge reservoir of a society in order to persons who are so socialized that survive. Central to the construction of the they find it easier to attenuate their Jamaican society is the matter of social and goals than to attempt to innovate or economic survival. Violence has been to use illegal means to achieve learned as an effective means of achieving them. power and economic gain. There is no evidence to show that Jamaicans are 3. Retreatism. This is the response of peculiar in terms of violence. Inner city persons who retreat from society out people seem to act differently because their of the frustration that comes with socio-economic conditions are different. recognizing that they do not have 84 Male Survivability the means to achieve their material economic effort. A number of scholars, goals. This group includes outcasts, including Harriott (2000), Gunst (1999), drug addicts and drunkards and Holland et al (1999), Chevannes and Levy those who do the ultimate, i.e., (1996) Khan-Melnyk (1994), and Stone commit suicide. (1992, 1991) make a strong connection 4. Rebellion. This is the response of between the drug trade in the Caribbean those who no longer live by the rules (linked with that of South America) and the of society or aspire to the goals it importation and use of guns and other sets. weapons by young men to harm or kill each other. They also found that there was Criminologists have paid most attention to a relationship between drug-related the deviant responses of innovation and violence and political violence in Jamaica. rebellion as these imply violence. More While the latter has been declining, the eloquently than other scholars, Marx former seems to be escalating. The outlined how ownership and power have connection seems to be that many of the an impact on the behavior of and young men who were recruited by political relationship among people in a given parties in the 1980s have now entered the social setting. Marx not only addressed the drug trade and have done so either under issue of relations of production but more the guise of politics or within the old importantly, the matter of who constructs political network. Hence it has been found the law, who breaks the law and who gets that some acts of violence have both caught. The frustration of the powerless political and economic motives. and their response to this feeling are the important issues here. This is the aspect There is no need to apologize for agreeing that Merton and other scholars highlight, with Headley's (1994) Mertonian namely that the dispossessed will express functionalist perspective that violence is a their frustration in a variety of ways that means of economic survival. Headley was threaten the stability of society. convinced that persons are often killed because they stand in the way of young Seen in these terms, some Jamaicans are men attempting to achieve an economic extremely innovative. Probably the most goal. Urban violence, therefore, seems to important issue here concerns the illegal have a strong economic motive. drug trade which developed in Jamaica in Chevannes (1999, 1996), Chevannes and the 1980s and emerged into an enormous Levy (1996), Moser and Holland (1997), 85 Male Survivability Gayle (1996) and Headley (1994) all speak of the immense pressure placed on young males to provide for the family and the implications of this for economic- related crimes. They are often expected to earn an income at any cost. 86 Male Survivability CHAPTER 5 PATTERNS OF SUBSTANCE USE AND ABUSE AMONG ADOLESCENTS IN JAMAICA 87 Male Survivability 88 Male Survivability 1960s. The work of Professor Michael Beaubrun in the late 1960s was one of the first to document alcohol use. What is important about this study is its focus. It was titled, Alcoholism and Drinking Practices in a Jamaican Suburb. Most studies since have examined substance abuse among working class groups. Of importance were his findings that the The existence of social and public health earlier one begins, the greater theproblems from drugs in Jamaica is likelihood of becoming a heavy drinker, nothing new. It is associated from the and that males were allowed to begin whole range of drugs, legal or illegal, which drinking from an earlier age. are liable to use (Narcotics Awareness In 1975, Rubin and Comitas in their Project Report, 1988). Substance abuse has medical anthropological study showed that been a significant problem in the last three the smoking of cannabis (ganja) was a rite decades in Jamaica with cannabis use de passage especially for working class becoming more of a constant danger in the boys. Through this act they signaled to 1960’s and 1970’s and cocaine use in the parents and peers that they were maturing. 1980’s. Jamaica is presently recognized as Grizzle and Rose (1976) were among the a world-renowned supplier and user of first to discuss the use of tobacco, cannabis potent grades of cannabis. Where cocaine and alcohol. The study however was is concerned, since the 1990’s, Jamaica focused on students in tertiary institutions has become a major transshipment as well and hence only included persons in the late as a major user territory” (Douglas 2000). teen years. It clearly bore out, however, that the problem of substance abuse was Documented studies on adolescent greater for males than for females. substance abuse in Jamaica go back to the 89 Male Survivability Chevannes and White (1981) in their that such hard drugs were being report Drug Abuse Among Youths related used by students. usage patterns to socio-cultural, historical 2. The Kingston Metropolitan Area and economic factors. They concluded that recorded the highest use of alcohol the use of cannabis and alcohol was part of and tobacco; rural areas the highest the tradition of the working class though for smoked cannabis and tourist they acknowledged that the problem also areas for crack and powder existed among the youth of affluent cocaine. communities. Chevannes and White also found that availability and a variety of 3. Males are involved in the use and social pressures were responsible for abuse of licit and illicit drugs much drinking problems among youth. The more than females. The table below problem of cocaine never emerged in the illustrates the point using figures for research findings of the 1970s. The work of tobacco use. The table that follows Chung et al (1985), despite from the Medical Association of methodological weaknesses, was among Jamaica supports the data from the the first studies to reveal that a few (1.3%) survey. adolescents had tried cocaine. TABLE 5.1 Sex of Post Primary Students who Ever Used Tobacco, in Supported by Douglas (2000), the most percent, for Jamaica: 1987 comprehensive national survey done on drug use patterns in secondary schools was Sex Past Month Ever Used the National School Drug Survey of 1987. Percent Percent The survey was administered to a total of Male 7.3 39.8 8886 students in grades 9, 11 and 13. Female 3.1 19.4 Random, stratified sampling allowed for generalizations to be made about the total Source: National Council on Drug Abuse, 1987. National population of the various secondary level School Drug Survey, 1987, not in the bibliography. schools in the country. Among others, three TABLE 5.2 important findings of the 1987 survey are Current Young Smokers, by Sex, for Jamaica: 1987 worth noting here. 1. In rank order, the three most Age Group Both Sexes Males Females frequently abused substances were Percent Percent Percent alcohol (76.3%), tobacco (29.1%), 10-15 2.3 3.2 1.3 and cannabis (28.3% tea, 19.8% 16-21 7.9 14.1 1.8 smoked). Though only 1.9% and 1.5% respectively used cocaine and Source: National Council on Drug Abuse. 1987. National crack, the study expressed concern School Drug Survey, 1987. 90 Male Survivability A number of significant findings emerged users of these substances than from the 1997 National Adolescent females. Students’ Survey. 3. Lifetime and current use of alcohol 1. Except in the case of inhalants, a and cannabis tended to increase higher proportion of male than with age. female adolescents was involved in 4. Among all students, the peak grade illicit drug use. Notice that this was (age) for initiation tended to be more than twice as high for before grade 7, and initiation rates cannabis and four times as high for gradually decreased as grade levels crack. Table 5.3 illustrates. increased, except for ganja and 2. In their lifetime, except for inhalants tranquilizers, which peaked again in and amphetamines, males were grade 9. significantly more likely than 5. The vast majority of students did not females to use particular drugs. condone regular use of crack, Even more important is the fact that cocaine, alcohol, cannabis or males were more likely to be heavier cigarettes. Nonetheless, 1.1 percent TABLE 5.3 Lifetime and Current Use of Various Substances Among Students of Grades 9, 11 and 13, by Sex, for Jamaica: 1997 Substance Lifetime Use Prevalence Current Use Prevalence Rate Percent Rate Percent Male Female Male Female Cigarette 34.7 21.1 6.4 3.5 Alcohol 78.0 63.5 37.1 22.0 Cannabis (Smoked) 37.3 18.4 12.4 3.8 Cannabis Tea 24.1 16.7 7.9 4.6 Cannabis in any other food or drink 6.7 2.9 4.4 1.6 Crack 3.1 0.9 1.2 0.3 Cocaine 2.1 0.6 0.8 0.1 Inhalants 15.1 16.4 7.6 11.2 Tranquilizers (Non- prescribed) 6.4 4.6 2.6 2.0 Amphetamine (Non-prescribed) 1.9 1.2 1.2 0.8 Opiates (Heroin, morphine, opium) 1.8 1.6 No data No data Source: National Council on Drug Abuse. 1987. National School Drug Survey, 1987. 91 Male Survivability did not disapprove of the regular rural areas) adolescents tend to use ganja use of ganja. as a substitute for alcohol because they 6. More females than males strongly cannot afford alcohol. disapproved of the regular use of The literature clearly shows that adolescent alcohol, tobacco and cannabis and males not only abuse drugs because of of trying crack and cocaine. More pressures of the various sorts discussed males tended to strongly disapprove above or because of the stress to identify at the grade 13 level. with manhood, but also because the society It seems clear that adolescents are among (especially the older men of the community) the most vulnerable groups to substance has made drugs more available to them. abuse. One of ten persons admitted for One key solution here is in fact practiced in treatment of drug related problems during a number of communities – the senior men the period 1993 to 1996 was under the never allow adolescents to smoke or to age of 20 years (National Council on Drug drink with them. This, some will argue, can Abuse 1996). Adolescents often succumb only help an infinitesimal bit as boys will to pressures from within the family, from mimic adults as seen in Chevannes’ 2001 peers, at school and from social conditions, book, Learning to be a Man. Hence as well as from individual psychological or smoking and drinking might be inevitable psychiatric factors. for adolescent males once older males are engaged in the act. Soyibo and Lee (1997) found that not only was drug use higher among male than A more realistic objective might therefore female adolescents, but it was also higher be to attempt to educate adolescent males among children of professional parents about the danger involved in using drugs. and among adolescents from urban areas. At the same time it is important to provide The work of Chevannes and White (1981) alternatives for the expression of and of Professor Beaubrun from the 1960s masculinity with the hope of at least cites a variety of reasons why the urban delaying the development of unhealthy male adolescent, especially of parents with habits. As borne out by the data, heavy reasonably comfortable incomes, has the drinkers and chronic drug abusers often highest drug use. In addition to Erik begin at an early age; tobacco and alcohol Erikson’s explanation of the male often serve as gateways to harder and adolescent identity crisis (largely borne out more addictive drugs. Delaying the use of in the work of Rubin and Comitas in 1975), drugs is therefore a very important strategy the issue of availability must be considered. in the fight against drug abuse. Also, Beaubrun’s substitution hypothesis In sum, the data direct us to take into cannot be dismissed. It states that working account two variables when designing class (and we may add those especially of programs to reduce drug use: gender and 92 Male Survivability age. More resources must be targeted at adolescent males, and the target age must be below age 12, which means focusing not only on secondary but also, and probably more importantly, on the primary schools. When these variables are taken together, they point to the fact that the most vulnerable group in terms of drug use is boys in early adolescence. CHAPTER 6 MASCULINITY, SEXUALITY AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH 93 Male Survivability 94 Male Survivability Definitions of Masculinity “Masculinity, like gender, is a socially defined construct influenced by myriad forces including history, culture, religion and economics. Male identities are partially created in the process of individuation that young males go through in an effort to define themselves as separate from their T mothers. Strict gender roles arehe National Family Planning Board of internalized, and boys learn to divorceJamaica has adopted the WHO themselves from qualities they identify as definition of reproductive health as a state feminine – passivity, weakness, illness, of complete physical, mental and social dependence and sensitivity.”17 well-being and not merely the absence of diseases or infirmity in all matters relating “Males or male-defined traits include to the reproductive system and to its assertiveness, aggressiveness, ruggedness, functions and processes. The issue of toughness, decisiveness, inventiveness, risk- reproductive health has become a taking, confrontation, conquest seeking, dominant area of discussion as it relates ruthlessness and having a killer instinct.”18 not only to male influence on female health and childrearing but its impact on male The literature is very clear on the participation in the reproductive process, importance of the issue of identity in the and how their related involvement impacts discussion of masculinity. Brown (1995, on their own definition of sexuality, identity, 1993), Brown et al. (1997, 1993), Boxill and gender roles. (1994), Chevannes (2001, 1999, 1996, 1993), Chevannes and Gayle (2000), 17Male Participation in Sexual and Reproductive Health: new paragigms – symposium Report Oxaca, Mexico, October 1998. 18Professor Miller’s address on Violence: Self and the Young Male, edited by Author McShire. 95 Male Survivability Gayle (1996) Leo-Rhynie (1993), Lewis role. The man is not seen as a man if (1994), Barrow (1982), McKenzies (1971) he cannot provide financially for his among others all found the key identifying children and offer protection from mark of manhood to be the ability to external harmful forces. This provide for the family despite class, sentiment is summed up in the geographical factors and changes over argument that a man must defend im time in the economy. This has often been youth.” presented as if it were a religious creed. 2. “Scriptural authority for family head Without this role, a man could no longer be – Men view it as God’s will that they the head of his family or even a male for should be the heads of their families. that matter. The dilemma, well discussed This view is also shared by women by the scholars listed above, is what Lewis who feel that when they happen to calls the feminization of traditional male be heads of households, it is not by economic activities and the more important their own choice but because they fact that many males enter the labor force are forced to do so.” prematurely and are thus robbed of the chance to reach their full potential. The 3. “Sexuality/sexual identity” – the result is that Jamaican men are not always male exhibits his manhood through able to provide for their families as is sexual exploits and the higher the expected of them. Of tremendous number of women with whom he is importance is the fact that adolescent involved sexually, the greater his males are forced to face this reality even as achievement. He provides evidence they mature or approach adult life. The of this through the number of result is often conflict and self-doubt, but offspring he produces.” many grow up to the reality that a greater “Even though the three aspects of manhood sense of gender equality exists in this are seen as necessary and increasingly generation than “when father was king and achieved as the man gets older, there are mom was barely queen.” inherent contradictions among the three. Brown et al (1997: pages 98-99) raised a The young man who is successful at proving series of issues related to male identity. his manhood through sexual exploits and many children will have a lesser chance of 1. “Primary role as provider – men are being able to in the end be a true man who seen as the ones who should be can financially take care of his family and responsible for the economic head his household than one who was not livelihood of their families. This is very successful in proving his manhood regardless of the employment status through his sexual behaviour. Such men are of the woman, as financial provision seen as ’bwoys’ never becoming real men.” for the family is not her designated (page 99) 96 Male Survivability “Even though the findings of the study for women who share a man, and suggest that boys and men are increasingly refer to financial as well as sharing domestic duties, such are still behavioural rules that are intended predominantly viewed as ‘women’s work’ to protect the primary (especially and do not serve to enhance a man’s common-law or married) partner demonstration of manhood or are viewed and inside children above other as substitute contributions when financial parties and families. Some men provision is lacking. Man/woman relations defend outside sexual liaisons only if were characterized by high degrees of they do not substantially interfere distrust and disillusionment.” (page 99) with the maintenance of their children.” The authors argue that this is due to the fact that the factors which determine manhood 2. “Power/authority – Most men encourage tensions between members of understand their role within the both sexes and also to the fact that the family as the head with the power present economic climate prevents many and authority which has been men from ever reaching the status of full ordained by God, and by historical manhood. cultural derivatives. Recent forces such as globalization, cultural The following are a list of reasons given by differences and women’s liberation Brown (1997: 99-101) for the level of movements have challenged the distrust and disillusionment which exists male’s authority within the home between men and women, and were and have led to power struggles obtained from group discussions with men between men and women.” alone, women alone and men and women. 3. “Family finances – The man is 1. “Male-female fidelity – Men and expected to take care of the family women have different views towards financially and this regardless of the fidelity. Men often see it as a need woman’s earnings. The woman sees for them to have multiple partners her earnings as her own to spend on while women view it as an ‘economic herself, her own children who do not necessity’. Men, however, view belong to the man and the home as female infidelity as ‘unacceptable’ she pleases, but it is not her and ‘punishable’. According to one responsibility. Men, even though man, ’De ooman mus’n do acknowledging that women working everyt’ing whe me a do. If me is a outside of the home is an economic t’ief de ooman mus’n be a t’ief!’ Due necessity, consider that it threatens to the social realities, social codes the man’s authority within the home. have evolved to dictate the protocol The position of the man within the 97 Male Survivability family is dependent on economic relationships that was reported was contribution. However, some men of concern, but there were are uneasy with the fact that the individuals who reported har- women get all the credit from monious male and female relation- children for their care as the woman ships.” is the one who spends all the money.” Leo-Rhynie (1993:7) highlighted very well one key implication of the power embodied 4. “Division of domestic labor – Men in the definition of manhood, given the and women have clearly defined major changes within the Caribbean in views as to the roles of each other terms of gender over the past three within the household. The man is to decades: be the head and provider while the woman should take care of “The man is, however, the symbolic household duties. Women should do authority figure in the home, but due things inside the house while the to the prevalence of matrifocality, in men take care of those things reality it is the woman who is the head outside of the house. Many women of the household. The woman also do not appreciate men who are however, shows deference to the man overly active in domestic affairs, as on the basis of her expectations of they see such men as ‘soft’, ‘maama economic support, and the deference men’ who intrude on and interfere shown to the man in the home is with the woman’s hegemony within eventually based on his ability to the home. However, real life provide for his family economically.” situations often dictate that the ideal Leo-Rhynie cites Barrows (1986:7) as expectations are not lived up to.” reporting considerable sexual antagonism 5. “Domestic violence – This is usually between males and female in the described as beating their women, Caribbean: although there were occasional cases of women beating men. This “Women see men as authoritarian, was often attributed to men and dishonest, irresponsible and unreli- women breaking ‘contracts’ or able, while men consider women to be ‘unstated misunderstood expecta- materialistic – the embodiment of Eve, tions’ which lead to disrespect or the Delilah and Jezebel – the Trinity of man losing face, and for him this can Treachery.” only be remedied by the woman Chevannes and Gayle (2000:78) being punished. The rate of such summarize the issues here as follows: tensions within male and female 98 Male Survivability “Despite the differences in social at any time wash a woman’s underwear or background, the adolescents and carry out any task that undermines his young men seemed quite united about masculine pride. The youth express a deep their definition of manhood. Of concern for boys who are given a greatest importance is the male’s considerable volume of ‘female’ tasks to ability to provide for the family. He do. His sexual identity is at stake, they must maintain not only the children reason.” but also the mother of those children. Additionally, he must care for his own mother. The men who reside in the “The young men express extreme pride in rural and inner city communities have being male. Of greatest importance to them expressed this as being critical. A man is the fact that men are the aggressors in is independent. He must survive on his sexual activity, rather than the recipients. own and hence earn the right to make Males who act effeminate are seen as his own decisions. He must also be the attacking the core of their male pride, and protector of his family. For this are therefore not treated kindly. While the reason, as well as for the matter of his youth are able to distinguish between an personal survival in a world that is effeminate male and a homosexual, they sometimes hostile to men, he has to shun the former almost as much. There is no be tough. The young men divergence among the youth regarding distinguished good men as their hostility towards homosexuals. The disciplined, courteous, gentle and continuous use of the slang ‘bun dat’ caring. Nonetheless he is never to be throughout all the sessions in reference to ‘soft’, meaning to be ‘headed’ or the practice cannot be taken lightly. It ‘ruled’ by his woman and thus indicates a high degree of intolerance and become a ‘maama-man’ or allow aggression against those who are involved. himself to be abused by anyone, Borrowing a word from Guyana, one group especially have another man take his described homosexuals as antiman – woman away from him.” someone that erodes manhood. It is “The young men viewed the gender division interesting to note that despite the extreme of labour as central to the socialization of homophobia expressed by the youth, there males. A boy’s duties are to be located are particular female traits that they feel are outside of the house. It is useful for him to enviable. These include the woman’s sense learn to do some of the ‘inside’ chores so of focus, self-control and perseverance. The he can survive on his own during his youth recognize that men on the other hand ‘cowboy’ days and to be able to assist his often lose focus due to their strong urge for spouse, especially if she is ill. He should not sex.” 99 Male Survivability Toughness late adolescence and early adulthood felt the same. Toughness, they reasoned, was a It is important to highlight toughness as a necessity for survival and for pride. It is in mark of manhood and to note its impact on fact one of the pillars of male power. As sexuality, family life and relationships. reasoned by early teens of the inner city: Clearly this particular identity or mark has “A boy could not be soft – no mama’s immense implications for the way men boy. He had to learn from early to relate to their spouses. As mentioned by fend for himself, to be a man and not inner city adolescents in Chevannes and a girl or a virgin – soft and delicate.” Gayle (2000), a girl was liable to be physically abused if that was required to “How im going to protect him family if make her realize that the male was not to a man see him as gal?” one asked. be treated as the soft one. The implications “Yu woman would cheat and feisty for crime and violence have already been with you and you can’t even do dealt with. nutting.” Brown et al. (1997) stressed the extent to which boys are treated differently from girls in order to make them achieve this mark of Sexuality manhood we describe as toughness. An individual’s sexuality is the result of a Chevannes (2001, 1999) and Chevannes complex joining of social, cultural and and Gayle (2000) among others support historical processes that form one’s sexual the observation made by Brown et al that identity. The existence of a hegemonic boys receive harsher punishment than girls model of masculinity is one of the principal even though their behavior receives less forces that shape men’s perceptions of their attention than that of girls. Girls are usually sexuality. This model also influences how those who receive physical affection men interpret feminine sexuality. Many although as their age increases it becomes men from various cultures are socialized to more inappropriate for male family believe that a woman’s sexual desire is members to express such attention. This born out of love for a partner, while men’s increases the man’s distance from his sexual desire is born out of a biological children, but this is partly due to the fear of instinct. In The Jamaica Adolescent Survey incest. Boys, unlike girls, are socialized not 1998, (Jackson et al, 1998) most to express affection and emotions. adolescents also held this view. Many Chevannes and Gayle (2000) found that adolescents also disapproved of teens toughness as a variable was constant having sexual intercourse outside of an across class or social background and age. established romantic relationship; Of all the males studied, those of early and however, more boys than girls approved of 100 Male Survivability a girl having sex with a male other than her Sexual Debut: ‘Different boyfriend. Strokes for Different A number of well-executed studies has Folks’ been done on the subject of male sexuality, though most have not focused on the “Even before they enter the teenage years, adolescent. Undoubtedly, sexuality is the sexual attitudes and behaviours of central to male identity as explained earlier young Jamaican adolescents have been by Brown et al (1997). A literature review significantly shaped by sociological and done by Barry Chevannes in 1993 is very gender norms that send contradictory useful to introduce the key issues. messages about sexuality and impose different standards of behaviour for boys 1. Men are able to separate sex from and girls. Girls (are) less likely than boys to love; sex is natural, and it is concede that a young adolescent girl would expected that men will want to have sexual intercourse.”19 indulge in it. 2. Boys learn much about sex from The literature is clear that there is an their peers and often feel pressured expectation that boys will get involved at a to get involved in sexual activities. younger age than girls. One of the critical findings of Chevannes and Gayle (2000) 3. Early sexual debut of boys is treated was that boys feel very pressured by girls to with tolerance and even amusement get sexually active as a mark of their but not so for girls. There is a sexuality. This is separate from the pressure concern for the boy’s sexuality. Early to satisfy the female sexually. heterosexual advances are greeted with relief. Chevannes (1999:12) noted that among boys, great pressure is exerted by the peer 4. Males are quite anxious about their group to initiate relationships. The reasons sexuality. The threat by a woman to given are: fear of being branded fire a man for not being able to “do homosexual; fear of ridicule because “oil the work” represents a stinging cake up” meaning unreleased sex drive; humiliation (page 9). the attitude that sex is natural. The peer group is a source of pressure not only to become sexually active. The group also sometimes shares in the actual experience, in what is commonly known as ‘battery’. Battery involves boys taking turns at coitus with a single hapless female. More recent 19Eggleston et el. (1999) 101 Male Survivability research by Chevannes and Gayle ‘Him would feel good cause him friends (2000:82) found the same concern. biggin him up’. When the moderator asked boys in a rural school if Ted would tell “The young men express concern and in anyone that he had sex with Nell, the some cases anxiety regarding sexual response was, ‘Him a go tell him friend, big performance. One group even brother. Him tell him relative and cousin acknowledged that they act aggressively and friend and everybody!’” towards those women they assume mock or attack their male pride in this regard. We It is in fact the pressure from peers why a found it quite common that a youth boy tells his friends and relatives that he preferred to harm the female physically in has had sexual intercourse, despite the the course of sex rather than have her consequence of offending the girl involved describe him as lacking the ability to and indeed creating an uncomfortable perform. They feel that the women situation. Identifying with his peers is of contributed much to their anxiety, as they greater importance than the embarrass- required a high level of performance from ment he may cause and is more valuable them. With the exception of some suburban than the girlfriend he may lose. youth, having a large penis meant being better equipped to meet this performance It is not surprising therefore that in The requirement.” Jamaican Adolescent Study, reported sexual experience was vastly different Eggleston et al. (1999:81) illustrated the between boys and girls, with 64 percent of dilemma of peer pressure in the following the boys and only 6 percent of the girls in manner. grade 7 saying they had experienced intercourse. The question then is with whom “A boy in another group related, ’Him are these young boys having sex? friends, them tell him that him gonna love Chevannes (2001), Chevannes and Gayle it!’ For boys who have not yet had sex, (2000) and data from the Gender encouragement from friends to engage in Socialization Project illustrate that from an sex may turn into pressure. ’If him no do it, early age, boys participate in commercial them a go call him chicken,’ explained one sex. Also, in a number of cases, older Kingston boy. Having intercourse for the adolescent females initiate them. first time often signifies a passage into adulthood, and sex can be a way for an Still, a significant percentage might have adolescent to assert that he or she is no had sex with girls of their age or just a few longer a child. In the focus group years older. Tables 6.1 and 6.2, drawn discussions, boys were particularly likely to from the Jamaica Reproductive Health view sexual initiation as an important sign Survey 1997, support this position.20 The of manhood. A boy in one focus group said, survey showed that 15.5 percent of boys 102 Male Survivability under age 13 had their first sexual Additionally it was found that sexual debut intercourse with girls under age 14. The (and in fact other issues of sexuality) was reality is that due to the construction of influenced by class or environment. Inner Jamaican society, females are expected to city boys gave 13 years and earlier as age abstain from sex longer than males so they of sexual debut, rural boys gave 14 and may lie about when they were initiated. suburban boys cited roughly 16 years. As Boys, on the other hand, may also lie was clear in the study, the critical factor stating that they started earlier than they in affecting the age at which males become fact did. Overall among males, the older sexually active is economic. As explained they were at first intercourse, the more by the adolescent males, boys cannot be likely they were to have a woman younger kept from sexual activity if they have than themselves as a first sexual partner. already begun to earn their own money Notice that 59 percent of women 18-24 and to carry out other functions of adult life years old had a younger partner at first at an early age. Suburban boys can delay sexual encounter. A similar pattern was sexual encounters, not simply because they observed in the 1993 Jamaica are more informed, but because they are Reproductive Health Survey.21 allowed to remain as children for much longer. Jackson et al. (1998) suggest the Eggleston et al. (1999) noted a significant same – that poverty is a critical factor in difference between boys and girls in early sexual behavior. relation to their sexual experience. Among adolescents reporting sexual experience, Chevannes and Gayle (2000) expressed the mean age at first sex was 11.3 for girls this point in the following manner, and with and 9.4 for boys. Forty-five percent of boys an appeal: reporting sexual activity claimed they had their first sexual experience at age nine or “It must also be pointed out that early younger. An examination of the data from sexual debut is associated with the Jamaica Reproductive Health Survey reduced childhood situations. The 1997 tells us that the average age for boys of the inner city who traditionally sexual debut might be somewhat older, grow up much earlier than other boys i.e., 13.4 years for boys and 15.9 for girls. in order to fend for themselves or This is in fact closer to the findings of assist their mothers economically, are Chevannes and Gayle recently. not surprisingly, the earliest starters. 20National Family Planning Board, 1999. 21McFarlane, C.P., J.S. Friedman and L. Morris, 1994. 103 Male Survivability TABLE 6.1 First Sexual Intercourse, by Age of First Partner, for Young Males in Jamaica: 1997 Age at first Younger Same Age 1-2 years 3-5 6+ Not Total N (Pop) Inter- older years years known course older older Under 13 0.0 5.7 9.8 16.2 56.0 12.4 100 50 13-14 0.4 3.5 14.4 38.6 32.4 10.8 100 285 15-17 1.9 7.7 25.1 34.4 23.0 7.9 100 799 18-24 7.3 10.4 22.1 31.2 16.5 12.5 100 294 Source: National Family Planning Board 1999. In the case where the children are school to begin to indulge in sexual allowed to have their full childhood as activities.” TABLE 6.2 First Sexual Intercourse, by Age of First Partner, for Young Females in Jamaica: 1997 Age at Younger Same 1-2 years 3-5 years 6+ years Not Total N (Pop) first Age older older older known Inter- course Under 13 13.2 26.6 28.1 17.9 54.8 8.5 100 520 13-14 23.9 29.9 26.7 9.0 2.4 8.1 100 487 15-17 36.4 30.3 20.2 3.2 2.1 7.8 100 533 18-24 59.0 6.6 7.9 5.9 2.9 17.8 100 126 Source: National Family Planning Board 1999. in the suburban group, there is less rush towards sex. Only this group felt little pressure including from their peers to have an early sexual debut. Undoubtedly, there has to be a drive for sex education in our primary schools as it is clear that our boys do not always wait until secondary 104 Male Survivability Sources of Information learn and how they practice what they and Level of Knowledge claim they have learned. on Sexuality, Sexually Peer influence is seemingly important as the key source of knowledge on sexual Transmitted Diseases, issues. The Jamaica Adolescent Study 1998 and Family Planning found that boys were less likely to rely on parents and more likely to turn to their Eggleston et al. (1999) expressed concern peers for sexual information, and that this at the low levels of knowledge on did not change significantly even in early reproductive health that were observed adult years. Many boys reported learning during the Jamaican adolescent study. For about sex from other relatives such as instance, fewer than 10 percent of the 11- brothers and cousins. The proportion of 14 year olds knew the point during the boys who received their most important menstrual cycle when a girl is most likely to sexual information from a friend rose from get pregnant, and only a third knew 14 percent in September 1995 to 34 pregnancy is possible at first intercourse. percent in June 1996. Though boys’ correct answers were significantly (statistically) higher than those Boys never seem to experience a shortage of girls, this must not be taken to mean that of information on the fact that they should the boys were more aware. Due to have a girlfriend or on how to get a girl. socialization, boys expressed more The problem seems to exist when they need confidence when they thought they knew to get accurate information on sexually something. Girls tended to say ‘I do not transmitted diseases or on reproduction. know’ even at times when they really did The boy is encouraged to see himself and know. Despite the fact that more boys got his manhood in a positive manner with particular questions correct, they were emphasis on his physical attributes and overall less informed than girls and had those of the adolescent female. The source greater misconceptions on a larger number of encouragement was not noted as either of issues related to reproductive health. In internal or external to the family. A seventh sum, boys are less likely than girls to get grade boy in one group offered that his accurate information regarding their male relative told him, “girls is very sexy reproductive health. The major concern is and nice”. The young male was also given the sources from which adolescent males advice about the facts of life or how to have get information regarding sex. This a relationship with a girl: “ Him father obviously has implications for what they would talk to him and make him take time with the girl.”22 22Jackson et el, 1988. 105 Male Survivability Notice that even older groups of males adolescents have already had their sexual indicate that their primary source of debut before entering secondary school or information on sexuality is similar to that of even grade 6, the final grade of primary their younger counterparts. Unlike younger school. As McDonald explained, the timing males, however, they participate in family of family life education must be wrong if 17 life education. Both sexes used parents and percent of girls who get pregnant do so at peers/friend/siblings as the major source the primary school level. She further of information about sex in heterosexual illustrated the point by drawing from the relationships and their own sexuality Jamaica Reproductive Health Survey 1997 (Tables 6.3 and 6.4). to show that the mean age for first sex for girls ages 15-17 was 14.7, yet only 35 TABLE 6.3 Adolescents’ Ages 11-14 Years Most common Response percent of girls had their fist family life to the Item, “ The Most Important Thing I Know about education class before age 13. The mean Sex, I Learned from…”, by Sex, for Selected Sites in Jamaica: 1998 age for first sex for boys ages 15-17 was 12.4, yet by age 13, only 30 percent had Response June 1996 June 1997 had a course in family life education. The N= 868 N=718 solution is, therefore, to begin family life Girl Boys Total Girls Boys Total education in primary schools in the middle Mother 10.8 10.2 10.5 6.6 9.1 7.8 rather than at the later primary years. Father 4.1 11.0 7.3 1.1 12.7 6.5 Other 6.1 14.7 10.0 9.0 17.0 12.7 Sexually Transmitted relative Diseases Friend 28.4 33.8 30.9 24.2 21.5 22.9 The Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ) Clinic 33.6 8.9 22.2 29.5 8.8 19.8 reports that the incidence of HIV/AIDS and Other 17.0 21.4 19.1 29.6 30.0 30.3 other sexually transmitted diseases is increasing among adolescents. The Source: Jackson et al, 1998. number of reported new HIV infections in adolescents had doubled each year since McDonald (1999) and Jackson et al (1997) 1995. Adolescent girls are three times expressed concern that family life more likely to have acquired an HIV education begins too late for many infection than boys of the same age.23 adolescents. A significant proportion of 23Blank 2000 106 Male Survivability TABLE 6.4 Non-use was attributed to cultural values. Preferred Source of Information on Family Life Education Topics for Young Women and Men Aged Many boys heard that sex was less 15-24 Years, for Jamaica: 1997 (In percent) pleasurable with a condom and they feared they would be perceived as unmanly if they Source of Information Women Men used one. Some thought that a boy who did Parents 32.2 32.8 use a condom would keep it a secret. “Him Health Personnel inclusive of 29.8 13.0 no tell nobody because them a go laugh National Family Planning after him and say him a little boy,” Blank Board (2000) highlighted. Eggleston et al. (1999) Peers/friends/Siblings 18.4 26.4 also suggested that culture is a major Teachers 7.5 19.1 barrier to increasing condom use among youth. Print Media/TV/Radio 3.8 5.6 Don’t know 1.6 1.5 “… Students associated family planning with promiscuity. Fifty-four percent of girls Other 1.4 1.7 and 71 percent of boys agreed that No preferred Source 5.3 0.0 condoms are only for boys ‘who have sex Total 100 100 with more than one girl’”… (page 82) N 1974 2278 According to the Jamaica Reproductive Health Survey 1997, among men 15 to 19, Source: National Family Planning Board. 1999. contraceptive use increased significantly The Jamaican Adolescent Study found that from 69 percent in 1995 to 83 percent in adolescents seemed most knowledgeable 1997. Because of increases in condom use when it came to condom use. Seventy-eight and, to a lesser extent, injection use, overall percent boys and 53 percent of girls usage increased in male age groups from agreed with the statement, “Using a 1993 to 1997. Overall however, 10 condom is a good way to avoid getting a percent of young adult men reported sexually transmitted disease.” Sadly having fathered a child, despite condom though, the older cohorts (15-19 years), use. This indicates that although there has although more aware of the perils of sexual been an increase in condom use, generally activity, demonstrated the highest risk it is not consistent. behavior of all age cohorts. The study Chevannes and Gayle (2000) found indicated that among those reporting nothing completely new in terms of sources sexual experience, fewer than half of both of sex information, except that the problem girls (43%) and boys (38%) reported using is differentially distributed by class, as well a family planning method the first time they as by age. You will notice that peers again had sex. become more powerful as sources of 107 Male Survivability TABLE 6.5 without exception, had good Contraceptive Use at First Sexual Intercourse among Adolescents Ages 11-14 Years, for Selected Sites in Jamaica: 1997 knowledge of STDs, especially AIDS. What was worrying, Measure Girls Boys however, is the fact that a small % N % N number of youth of the 10 – 14 Percentage reporting intercourse 5.8 490 64.4 455 age group reported that they were sexually active but Mean age at first intercourse 11.3 28 9.4 284 without using condoms, either Mean difference (in years) between first 3.2 28 1.2 284 because they were not yet able partner’s age and respondent’s age to ejaculate and therefore did Percentage who use contraceptive at first 42.9 28 37.7 284 not see the need to use them or intercourse. Difference is statistically significant at p<.05 simply because they experienced problems with the Source: Jackson et al. (1998). use of the condoms available, due to the small size of their information once the sheltered suburban penises.” (pages 81-82) boy leaves that shelter. The literature and statistics found on the “It was not surprising that the youth of the knowledge and use of contraceptive by suburban groups drew on a wider range of adolescents beg for urgent action. It is clear sources regarding information on sex and that despite the gender differences that manhood. They also differed in the sense both male and female adolescents are in that for the younger groups, parents were trouble – dying of thirst in a fountain of listed as the first source of information. The information. The issue is not that suburban youth attending university information does not exist but rather that it differed somewhat from their younger is not reaching young people early enough. suburban counterparts in that they had Girls seem to be at an advantage in terms pushed aside much of what they had learnt of getting accurate information. This is at home and had turned to colleagues, implied in the fact that they go to more internet and the media as their major informed sources, meaning parents and sources. The inner city and rural youth clinics. The paradox though is that while presented street and school as their main girls and older adolescents showed that sources. What is of interest here is the they had more information than early impact of the street on the socialization of adolescent males, the former groups are at the boys, especially those of the inner city.” greater risk of contracting the HIV virus. Part of the dilemma of females is that it “What was probably most impressive in the requires more than information to secure research is the level of information the life. Studies have shown that females are youth had regarding contraceptives. All, 108 Male Survivability forced by economic circumstances to folklore myths and out-and-out engage in risky sexual activities or to misconceptions.” manage sexual risk. The reality is, risk is not always manageable. Furthermore, females A number of concerns must be raised in are more biologically susceptible to terms of developing programs to combat contracting HIV. the problem of sexually transmitted diseases among adolescents: the first is Information from Allen (1997) and White that programs designed to educate and Chevannes (1981) tells us that boys students must effectively connect with and may also find themselves in various match their frame of understanding. The vulnerable situations. Allen (1997) spoke second is the economic plight of students about the relationship between must be taken into consideration. Third, the empowerment and contraceptive use as it pressures placed on males and the various relates to women. Sex is often a source of ‘cultural contracts’ that impact negatively power for women as Jamaican women are on the male must also be addressed. known to use sex as a means to their ends. Finally, programs must also be focused on This is manifested in “red-eye sex” and the out-of-school adolescents. practice of withholding sex from men. Nonetheless, the same could not be said for young boys in homosexual relations Adolescent Prostitution with older men as they could find Very little has been documented on the themselves unable to negotiate condom subject of adolescent prostitution. The use. Baseline Survey in Child Labour: Spanish White and Chevannes (1981) wrote some Town, raised the issue that a significant two decades ago: proportion – just under 8 percent – of the working children sampled were in fact “Adolescent boys in particular spend sexually exploited. Just over a year ago, considerable time talking about sex, qualitative research was carried out in but they tend to acquire sex seven parishes by the National HIV/STD information from their own ill- Prevention Programme. In these parishes it informed age mates or through was estimated that there were 1250 female experiment or experience. In the prostitutes and a shocking 550 male adolescent peer culture, ignorance of prostitutes catering to the now-obvious sexually related matters is suppose to homosexual male population. The data tell connote that a person is still a ‘youth’ us that large numbers of both male and and is ‘soft’… The result is often a female prostitutes are adolescents. It was hodgepodge of misinformation, half- in fact a frightening revelation (when it was true guesses or shrewd surmises, published in the media) that 50 of the 109 Male Survivability estimated 350 male prostitutes in the forces constrain or permit certain Kingston Metropolitan Area were in fact forms of expression of masculinity. under the age of 15 years.24 Lest one infers from the foregoing that masculinity in the Caribbean is Robinson, Bain and Thompson (2001) constructed in two varieties – were concerned that a number of boys are hegemonic and homosexual – one being sexually abused on Jamaican streets. should also be cognizant of other Klao Bell, in an article entitled, “Street Boys forms which inhabit spaces between Feel Brunt of Sex Crimes” discussed the those two addressed so far … here plight of street boys. She cited a number of are men in the Caribbean who reject observed incidents where men pick up homosexuality and hegemonic these boys in variously priced cars. It can be masculinity, some of whom chart an assumed that the boys are paid for their alternative course of gender relations. sexual favors and are indeed operating as Such men do not subscribe to the prostitutes. One nerve-rattling point made belief that masculinity should be was that the rape and juvenile unit of the predicated on the domination of police had had no reports of these women.” incidents. It is clear that occasional patrols are not enough to protect youth from Jamaica can be reasonably described as sexual abuse. What is needed is the one of the most intolerant countries of enforcement of laws designed to protect homosexuality in the Western Hemisphere. them with effective sanctions that will All forms of anal intercourse are reduce the crisis. considered revolting by Jamaicans whether with a woman or with a man (Chevannes Homophobia and 1992). Such is the stigma that very fewstudies have been done in the area. Simply Homosexuality put, scholars refuse to be associated with the topic. Furthermore, the few studies that Lewis (1994: 14-15), in his work have not ignored the subject find the same Constructing the Masculine in the Context thing: there is a deep intolerance of of the Caribbean, described homosexuality homosexuality. In the recent study by as a … Chevannes and Gayle (2000), boys even “subordinated form of masculinity, felt offended by the question. In a number which cannot be overlooked when of cases the boys felt more comfortable attempting to understand men and being asked by a female. Despite the gender relations. It also forces us to differences among the suburban, rural and come to grips with what cultural inner city boys, they were all quick to “bun a 24See The Sunday Gleaner, October 22, 2000. 110 Male Survivability fire on a batty man” during the group They also found that younger and sessions. One of the implications that we especially suburban males were more likely cannot escape is the fact that the fear of to support the view that it is possible for a homosexuality has been used as an excuse man to have one faithful partner. The for not requiring teenaged boys to delay overwhelming majority of the youth, heterosexual activity until late teens at least. however, feel it is normal for a man to have more than one sexual partner. As was “There is an extreme homophobia here, expressed by a number of them, men are which among other factors, seems to bring hunters by nature and hence having more pressure to bear on parents, many of whom than one woman satisfies the macho or are young. From the data, one gets the hunter feeling. impression that some parents, especially in the inner city, are relieved when they The young men felt having more than one discover that their boys are expressing an woman was also important to safeguard early interest in girls. As one group told us, the man from heartbreak. Not all women mothers were more likely to warn their boys can be trusted to be faithful, they reasoned. of early sexual activity than fathers.” It is best for a man to have more than one (Chevannes and Gayle, 2000:80) woman so as to reduce the effect on his emotions whenever she cheats. Those who Relationships differed in opinion here did so mainly onreligious grounds. The Christians in the Chevannes and Gayle (2000) found that group point to the level of possible stress youth consider it important for a man to that could come to bear on the male who have a girlfriend. There were, however, has more than one sexual partner. slight variations in the responses based on The issue of marriage resulted in a age and social background. While rural continuum of views. At one end was the and inner city males saw this as very view of suburban young men that important as an identifying mark of marriage was critical for stability and manhood, younger suburban males felt it respect. For them it was a prerequisite for was secondary. The latter claimed establishing a family. They suggested that a education deserved more of their attention man should seek to do this respectable during their teen years. For a number of the thing between the ages of 25 and 35, at younger inner city and rural males who which point it was expected that he would were already sexually active, it was the sex have had the material resources to begin a that was important, not the relationship family. In the middle was the view of inner which brought with it some degree of city and rural young men who agreed that commitment duties. marriage was an ideal without which the family would not enjoy the respect and 111 Male Survivability status that society ascribed to the institution. problem in that his presence reduces the They did not, however, share the middle- assistance she could receive from family class view that it was a prerequisite for and friends. This reality was also clearly establishing a family. Instead they borne out in Gayle (1996). Leo-Rhynie, like established a sequence of events: sex, Crawford-Brown (1999) did not ignore the children, and finally marriage. Marriage fact that a child might best do without a would take place during middle age but father if his contribution is to abuse the before the children were old enough to go child and mother or simply to create on their own. At the opposite extreme was conflict. Children may develop negative the view of some of the older youth of the attitudes toward authority as a result. Leo- inner city and rural communities who Rhynie criticized the practice of mothers expressed an outright fear of the institution. turning to fathers only when they are They lamented the fact that they might have unable to discipline the child. This is to marry one day. The major problem for especially dangerous when the father does them was the amount of power that the not temper the correction with some show woman gained when she married the man. of affection, as mother does. Studies have They felt it was unfair that a woman could shown therefore that quite often the boy is claim half of a man’s property if married to closer to his mother even when the father is him. They suggested late middle age as the present. time in their lives when they might be forced into wedlock. The Adolescent Father One area of adolescent relationships that has received some attention – albeit not Adolescent fatherhood is seen as a enough – is that between parent and child. problem but is treated with ignorance and Leo-Rhynie (1993) expressed concern that prejudice. Volumes of literature have been boys are missing out on a lot when their written on teenage pregnancy, yet so very fathers are absent from the home. Sadly, little data exist on adolescent fathers in boys often learn about fatherhood from Jamaica. The impression created from the their fathers’ transient and erratic quantity and quality of data available is presence. Fathers are often detached or that the adolescent male is expected to physically and psychologically absent, behave in that manner and having not existing at the margin of the home. Part of disappointed the society by being a the problem, she pointed out, is that many problem, we can then focus on the victim of women have reached a point where they his damage: the female. Adolescent fathers feel that the presence of the father is more are treated with the same stereotypes as negative than positive. In the case where older men, but adolescent males are not all the male is not earning, he becomes a irresponsible. Chevannes (2000: 2-3) addressed the attitude of the Jamaican 112 Male Survivability society towards adolescent paternity in the celebrate their achievement, but send away following way: the girls to the country to have the child and in some instances they are banished from “One of the most important powers the church; the community says she is a discovered by the adolescent is the power demon and has let down the family.” The of sexuality. The power of involuntary reality is that none of the two actions are arousal and emission, of the stirrings of usually done with a focus on guiding the love and attraction, of the qualities of smell steps of the teenager. The family goes into and touch, of reading through the eyes, crisis management gear to save its and so on, are all parts of the new reputation, and the teenager becomes the experience. In this context, and with these secondary issue. After the ”bashment” is considerations as base, that of the whole over and all accept that the adolescent matter of adolescent paternity becomes a male is indeed heterosexual, then reality matter that we have to deal with. But I do sets in. Suddenly he is the problem – and not separate it from adolescent maternity – no longer the star. they are two of a kind, they belong to the same self-discovery of powers that our The Gender Socialization Project (see society of elders and supposedly wiser folk Chevannes 2001) and Gayle (1996), deny, seek to repress, pretend do not exist, among others, speak clearly to the fact that expect them to handle by themselves, pass a number of adolescent males wake up to off to others – parents to educators, the reality that they are fathers, and, with educators back to parents, and now, in the financial support from parents not always most morally reprehensible way possible, forthcoming, they drop out of school to to the law-makers, to make of our support mother and child. In the Women’s youngsters criminals for the consensual use Centre survey (Gayle, 1996), cases were of powers that are natural, and therefore found of adolescent baby fathers who had God-given.” to juggle school, part time work and collecting the baby at the day care center The problem is even further exacerbated by every day. Very little is mentioned of this the fact that, largely out of a fear of reality. Reports usually highlight those homosexuality, adolescent males are given scared or simply irresponsible males who confusing signals regarding sex. The leave the task of caring and providing for comment made by Reverend Ernle Gordon the child to the grandparents. Reverend in an article recently is worth noting:25 Gordon’s connection of early fatherhood to “Whenever our sons have sexual relations economic crime cannot be ignored.26 As with young girls and they become borne out in Gayle (1996), many youth pregnant, we have a bashment party to 25See The Daily Observer, April 2001, page 7. 26Ibid. 113 Male Survivability would not have hustled had they not taken 1. He lived in another 23.0% clients, on the role of father. parish or area controls 22.9% 2. He denied/doubted 12.2% clients, Neither the data from the Women’s Centre paternity controls 13.3% survey of 1996 nor their later report in 1999 (Women’s Centre of Jamaica 3. Family pressure from 12.2% clients,one or both sides controls 11.4% Foundation, 1999) provided evidence that young men were sexually irresponsible. It is 4. He was not interested 12.2% clients, important to note here that three-quarters controls 11.4% of the baby fathers were between 14 and It is important to note that the major reason 23 years old – not mature men taking was not that they were not interested. advantage of teenaged girls. The 1996 Equally important is the finding that almost evaluation exercise carried out by the all the girls said pregnancy was unplanned, faculty of social sciences of the University of an accident. Chevannes (2001) and the the West Indies selected a sample of 232 of contraceptive prevalence surveys of the the Women’s Centre clients over the five- 1990s confirm that this is usually the case. year period from September 1989 to Eggleston et al. (1999:81) illustrated how August 1994. A matching control sample easily sex can occur between adolescents of 145 non-clients, 55 baby fathers of with the consequence of pregnancy: clients and 45 baby fathers of non-clients were also sampled. The similarities “A boy and a girl a play dolly house – the between clients and controls were great. boy, the father and the girl, the mother. Both sets of girls were in reasonably stable Them a sleep and things get outta hand. relationships with the baby father before Him start feel her up, you know, take off they got pregnant (84% of clients and 88% clothes, kissing go on…him push it in, she of controls considered themselves start cry.” girlfriends). Three of four girls (75.4% The act should therefore not be considered clients, 79.2% controls) stated that their irresponsible for any one or both parties. baby fathers stood by them during the “What this is suggesting is an experience of pregnancy, and 88.8 percent of clients and sexual powers somewhat out of control.” 89.7 percent of controls said the baby Chevannes (2001). What is therefore fathers gave material support. needed is education and guidance. Three other points of importance emerging The second concerns an issue that from the study must be discussed here. emerged again in Chevannes and Gayle First, the main reasons baby fathers give (2000). Young males are mostly not little or no support or visit once per week or anxious to have a child. While the prospect less were as follows: of having a child is ego boosting, more adolescent males are viewing early 114 Male Survivability fatherhood as a bad prospect. Eggleston et “The problem of accepting paternity al (1999:83) found that while boys were becomes worsened, however, if the mother more likely to express enthusiasm about an is a ‘sketel’ or ‘careless’ or ‘loose’ woman unexpected pregnancy, their peers may with whom a number of men have been have mixed feelings. A boy in the Kingston having sex. Here the youth has two focus group observed, “The good ones problems: would ask him why him do such a thing, him should’ve wait. But the bad ones 1. He cannot guarantee any support would big him up and say ‘gwane man, from his parents as he has you get a son!’ and dem would want to try embarrassed them. it.” The situation is complicated by the fact 2. He is likely to become an object of that sometimes when told that their ridicule to the community. The girlfriend is pregnant they are not always pressure not to accept paternity certain if the baby belongs to them. builds due to the stigma attached to Chevannes and Gayle (2000) found that it ‘jackets’, that is a child accepted by is a major cultural issue in Jamaica for a a man to be biologically his but man to find himself tricked into believing which was fathered by another man that a child that he never produced is his. unknown to him (page 81). Box 3: The Street Corner Society Street based groups provide an important support network for young men. They influence and validate the emerging values and ideals and may even be the foundation for an alternative community … the street corner is a zone of occupation for men, predominantly young men. It is scene of conflict between and within gangs and between gangs and the police. The theater of the street is also the arena where young men sound out strong messages about themselves through the medium of designer goods, jewelry, their movement speech … The street is a dead end but it offers ways of hustling and working out a way of living. It seems to have a magnetic pull on the large number of boys who have not performed well in school: it thrives in an environment where the job options are scarce as they are … The centrality of physical strength, the possession and display of money and the ‘control’ of many women is the definition of maleness and … one of the lifestyles therefore offered and highly valued by the street culture is that of the ‘girls man’ (who) deliberately develops a number of relationships with women with a reputation and with the symbolic values of the culture. Excerpts from: “Street Culture and the decay of Community,” By Bailey, Branche and LeFranc Caribbean Dialogue, 4, 2,1998 115 Male Survivability Less than two years ago an article was African-Caribbean peoples shows a very published in The Daily Observer that high incidence of extremely fragile and justified the fear expressed by young men unstable kinds of relationships we call that children named as theirs might in fact visiting at the start of the mating cycle, and not be. The article presented that 34 a progressive development through the life- percent of samples tested by the University cycle towards greater stability.” Hospital of the West Indies for the family court showed that the man to whom The implication is therefore clear: those fatherhood was attributed was not the families that are able to guide their child’s father. Only 30 percent of almost a adolescents to wait beyond the early crisis thousand monthly cases that arise in the period have a higher probability of court for child maintenance generate producing a stable second generation of orders for paternity tests, the writer families. It is therefore not surprising that informed us. The implication, therefore, is the suburban adolescents in Chevannes that thousands of cases go unchecked.27 and Gayle (2000) were less inclined to identify having a child as a mark of The third point is the fact that Jamaican manhood and were less likely to be culture constructs a graduation for adolescent fathers than their rural and relationships, which means a child inner city counterparts. The study produced in an adolescent union may not nonetheless found some degree of promise eventually grow up with the biological among all the adolescent and young men. mother and father. This is quite problematic as it has implications for stable “The young men, especially the teenagers families. Chevannes (1999) in his Grace of suburban background, took the issue of Kennedy Foundation lecture reported the fatherhood very seriously. They expressed findings of a 1996 survey that assessed the clearly that they were not ready for that proportion of relationships that remained level of commitment. As youth their focus intact over the 1989 to 1994 period. The has to be on acquiring education or a skill boyfriend-girlfriend relationship had to prepare them for the world of work. Some plummeted for clients from 84 percent to were explicit in stating that having a child 22, and for controls from 88 percent to 31. would at that stage be a hindrance to their Chevannes (1999:9) commented that this progress or survival. On such ground they is not surprising: acknowledged that in case of accidentally getting a girl pregnant, they would sadly “It has long been established by Caribbean request a termination. In the cases where anthropologists and demographers that the such an operation may not be possible, they pattern of conjugal bonding among suggest that their mothers would be called 27Wrong Dad: A third of Fathers never Sired their Children, Nicola Ramarand, Observer, March 9, 2000. 116 Male Survivability upon to assist in the care of the child. There sad that boys learn most about themselves was unity, especially among the older youth on the street and from their peers, but that the ideal age for children is in the research ignores how they bond and thirties. Even those young men who already support each other. There is a real absence had children shared this view.” of studies on how adolescent males relate on the playground and youth clubs and on “The implications are clear: if male youth what is involved in youth brotherhood. view having a child at that age as such a problem then we can assume that his Studies on male bonding have tended to reaction to the news that he has a child on focus on social clubs, pubs, churches and the way will be negative or evasive. Many of other organizations of adult men. Levy, the youth expressed, nonetheless, that they Gayle and Stultz (2001) found that corner would do their best to care for that child if it crews are institutions that play an had to come into the world.” enormous role in providing support to young men. Often confused as criminal “Due to the pressure that comes to bear on gangs, they are attacked by the police and a young man when he fathers a child many receive very little sympathy from people of argued that during their teen and early the ”outer city” as they are branded. This is adult years they feel comfortable depositing not to say that corner crews cannot and do their sperms in condoms.” (page 80-81). not in fact get involved in crimes, but they are not designed for the purpose of Adolescent Male Bonding carrying out crimes; rather, their main function is to lend support to each other. It This is an area that needs to be urgently is even the place where boys attending investigated. It is important to note that the school learn how to attempt examination topic of adolescent male bonding has questions from other boys who had “been always been discussed as an ‘absent there and done that” but have dropped out fathers issue’ or as a consequence of of school. The corner is a school – but very homophobia or subsumed under few of us have gone to assess what the discussions of inner city violence. The fact is youth learn there. Box three illustrates how that men of all ages and classes bond. It is other scholars view the corner crew. 117 Male Survivability 118 Male Survivability CHAPTER 7 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 119 Male Survivability 120 Male Survivability So where do we go from here? So much research is lacking on the male suffer immense abuse, sometimes in theadolescent in Jamaica and an shelter of their homes. Gender equity in examination of the little has saddened me every sense is still ‘only on the road so much. coming’; it has not arrived. Despite the achievement of feminism, adolescent girls The major serendipity of the literature are exposed to a variety of forms of abuse: search is the fact that the society – including sexual, physical, and psychological. It is the state, the community, the school, and therefore unforgivable to construct the home – has failed our children in terms programs for a single sex. While the of protective care and a promise of following discussion will be focused on tomorrow. Too many Jamaican children adolescent males, I strongly recommend are vulnerable, stressed, lonely, confused that support systems should rightly be and sad while we pretend not to see. We focused on needs rather than on gender. must embark on a new road that helps our Both boys and girls should be able to get children to find us, the adults. Themes the help they need when they need it. relating to children’s programs need to be named “Reaching out to Hard-to-Reach Society makes men of poor boys and then Society” instead of “Reaching out to Hard- wonders why they act like children if and to-Reach Youth.” Projects must reflect the when they do become adults. The problem truth that we adults are the ones who are with young men in Jamaica is not only one hard to reach. of socialization or male identity. The problem is structural and fundamental, While the data suggested that adolescent systematic and systemic. Society either does males were more neglected than not care or is oblivious to the plight of the adolescent females, the latter are overall male poor and ignorant of their power to not significantly better off. Young females 121 Male Survivability forcefully remove those in authority or he often sees the dilemma of the inner city block national development efforts. The adolescent and interprets it to be in style or inner city and working class male “cool”. progresses from an often unwanted birth to an infancy lacking protection and love, to Education and support of varying forms are an adolescence filled with misconceptions needed for all three groups of adolescent and confusion, to young adulthood males in Jamaica, but concurrent changes decorated with children he is not fully must be made to change how both males certain are his, to a family court if he is and females perceive life. It must be honest but broke, or to prison or the grave recognized that males need to have a fully if he tries by ‘Mertonian Innovation’ to developed adolescence without premature respond to the many who constantly entry into the labor force. The family needs remind him that he has to provide by any to recognize that a trained male is a better means. He is guaranteed a place with the investment than an abused premature four percent of Jamaicans who are not substitute for the frustrated or less than expected to live to see age 40 and requires honorable father who left or died. immense help to occupy a safer place. One of the major problems in Jamaica The adolescent male of the upper and may well be a lack of vision. The plight of upper middle classes, clearly better off than adolescent boys is extremely visible. One his working class counterparts, is not can only assume that the policy makers and intimidated by the challenge presented by planners have been too preoccupied with the upwardly mobile females. He is certain other issues of development to recognize of his share of his family’s legacy or that those for whom the developments are business. He may become spoilt and planned may not live to benefit from them arrogant. It is difficult for him to understand and may ensure that others also do not the plight of the poor, and he often does benefit. The situation is most grave for not pretend to. In essence he therefore males of the inner city. The newest weapon becomes a part of the problem. Yet he is turned against adolescent males is that of most likely the one who will make decisions sexual abuse. This cannot be taken lightly. regarding the survivability of our women Three objectives that are instructive for and the marginalized poor, as he owns the program intervention are presented. core of the private sector, the life-blood of the nation. The middle class male seems Objective 1: To develop a system that most guided and equipped through affords adolescent males a chance to adolescence. It is he who relies mostly on enter the world of work later and better the guidance of parents. Notwithstanding, qualified. this guidance, he is not out of the woods for 122 Male Survivability According to the data, males enter the • create alternative means to recapture labor force far too early and comparatively lost pride through acts of crime and poorly qualified. Their contribution is violence, thereby threatening our therefore not maximized; rather, they are survival as a nation. expected to produce as if they were We can begin to build the bridge with better equipped with the necessary skills to do so. inputs or we can watch the construction of The expectations placed on the working this bridge fail. Urgent short-term as well as class adolescent male to earn a living by long-term measures need to be taken to age 14 years, and sometimes younger, address the crisis of the working class male. cannot be changed at will. These The truth is that surgical applications are expectations are maintained obviously required. because they serve particular needs, without which life could not be sustained. Make school attractive to boys Providing for the family remains the primary role of men in our society. Being Schools need to be redesigned to be more able to earn therefore has implications for sensitive to the needs of men and the male identity. progressive path of society. Whilst we would rather have our youth see education The fact is that a cycle of poverty exists in as both a means to an end and as an end Jamaica stemming from the residues of in itself, the reality is that our boys, often slavery but equally because there has been stressed by economic and socializing some lack of political will. The society pressures, identify education with earning. cannot solve its economic and social Unfortunately some are forced to view problems by disenfranchising males of a education as unimportant because in particular class of education and skills, reality many around them, especially while concurrently facilitating women of the women, are no better off economically same class to achieve upward social despite having an education. As discussed mobility. The implication is social suicide. by Anderson (1997), we have no choice but The present crime trends should motivate to align school with the demands of the the requisite change. The fact is, if males labor market. Schools must therefore are increasingly unable to carry out their become more technical. We discussed God-given, family-expected role of earlier Mohammed’s (1995) argument that providing, they will: despite fewer males attending the University of the West Indies, men land in • feel diminished manhood, technical areas that offer higher • increasingly manifest self-destructive remuneration. Why then not design schools behavior, acts of insecurity, especially towards this end? This is the direction the violence against their families, world is going – it is a technical world. No 123 Male Survivability longer do we speak about information; expected to sit in class like a girl and learn rather we speak about information their English and sums. Even girls have technology. Why then should the demands complained how boring school is at times. of our youth not drive innovations in the The truth is that we have to retrain and re- school system? equip our teachers to survive in the new video-active age. “Talk and chalk” has As one adolescent male pointed out, school long served its purpose. The continuous is a place you go to if you want to be appeal to male teachers to return to the controlled and have people punish you classroom is a waste of time. Until teachers because you do not know. Poor teaching are paid at a competitive scale, it will not techniques and the abuse of boys in school attract male teachers enough for them to must be legislated out of existence. We make a significant input at the teaching have to put in place sanctions to prevent the level. physical and psychological abuse of boys especially in primary schools. Teaching Develop an effective programme to strategies are female-oriented, and give youth a second chance if and expectations of male behavior and when they fail in the school system performance are unacceptably low. Having taught in the primary school, I am More centers of technical skills need to be convinced that males are often destroyed at established with a focus on boys from that level. They often drop out marginalized communities. Centers need psychologically at this stage before the to focus on viable areas of training physical drop-out occurs in secondary including construction, auto mechanics, school. I have witnessed schools change carpentry and joinery, ceramics, small from a passing ratio of 1 boy to 4 girls to electronics, photography, small business 50: 50 by simply changing the teacher. and painting. Research needs to be carried out in the What is wrong with the HEART area of best methods to teach boys. program? Frankly, a large number of female teachers do not know how to reach boys. Only The Human Employment and Resource recently a female teacher in a particular Training (HEART/NTA) needs to adopt school made the error twice in a single gender sensitive approaches if it is to act as devotion exercise of asking the girls to an effective second chance program. stand in a co-educational school. The boys HEART must include more male-oriented were ignored. One boy demanded to know skills programs in keeping with the male if he was a girl. crisis and upgrade its system of support. For example, HEART should provide a Although studies have clearly shown that stipend for students enrolled in programs boys have higher energy levels they are that are designed to attract adolescent 124 Male Survivability boys. Programs must treat adolescent this medium, the poor can achieve male students on a case-by-case basis and acceptance. Projects must be organized at assess the short and long term cost of the grassroots level such as those of the keeping him in the training program. Area Youth Foundation and Children First, Where it is assessed that funds are not which have produced top quality available to support those below the radar performers from among marginalized it should be declared honestly so that a adolescent youth. different approach can be sought. Objective 2: To address the circum- An alternative approach is to construct on- stances and behavior of adolescent the-job education programs. This will allow males that endanger their lives as well boys to get into large companies and study as threaten the lives of others: neglect, while they work. In this way they will see the violence, drug abuse and poor sexual reason for working ‘close to the face’. This conduct. will also be less costly to the government. It is important to note the difference between It may seem extremely paradoxical, but we the former and latter approach. In the latter need to protect our children from the state. case the adolescent male is placed in a How can children be put into lock-ups company which provides a stipend that is because there is a lack of space in safe counterpart supported by the government. houses? Groups such as Children First Part of this package is that the boy has to must take on the additional task of study related areas of subjects in order to protecting our children from a system that remain in the program or to be accepted as maims and destroys children who are part of the staff of the company. The already scarred. There is an urgent need stipend in this approach is expected to be for family service agencies to be made higher, and there is less of a chance for him available to families. Families are in to drop out after a month due to lack of trouble. The current probation service and support and the demands of his family. This family counseling services may be is not uncommon to the HEART program. inadequate. If the battle is to be won Finally, each youth taken into this program comprehensive services need to be put in should be assigned a mentor within the place, and the focus should be on boys if company. This provides a wonderful violence is to be reduced. For too long the opportunity for the private sector to job has been done backwards. Boys must become more involved in the socialization now be the focus. The data tell us that we of our youth. need a program to help sexually abused boys. For them the pain is equally great, yet Grassroots Programs due to our version of masculinity, the society neglects the tough but easily-broken The visual and performing arts should be developed in such a manner that through 125 Male Survivability male. Child prostitution laws must also be HIV-related deaths of adolescents in this enforced to protect both boys and girls. country are largely to blame on poor We are aware of the degree of neglect that policies and on our extreme conservatism boys face in the working class setting. They or plain hypocrisy. Let us begin to face the are more likely than girls to be hungry. We reality: most of our adolescents are sexually have achieved a lot as a country in terms of active. They become sexually active reducing squalor. The nutritional status of between ages 12 and 18 depending on sex our children is remarkably good but we and class. We can safely assume that a have a high inequality of child survivability working class adolescent male of age 14 is (87th) (Human Development Report, already sexually active. Why are sexual 2000), which suggests that certain groups issues discussed in language as if all our are extremely vulnerable. The data tell us adolescent males are altar boys and all the clearly that where the resources are scarce, girls are saints of the blessed faith? This is the attention is focused on the survival of as good a time as any to end the hypocrisy. the female as she is assumed to be “soft”. It If we do, then we will be able to save our is not surprising that studies show that in adolescents from the scourge of AIDS. certain settings boys can be expected to be Acting on the fact that our adolescents are shorter than girls in relation to the expected sexually active before their mid-teens, let us height at that age.28 This is not to ignore shift the emphasis of our campaigns from the fact that some parents are quite willing abstinence to the power of choice. This to treat their adolescent daughters as a means equipping our teenagers with commodity for the survival of the family. information about sex, including how to be The truth is that despite the actions of protected if the choice is to engage in groups to ameliorate the situation of sexual intercourse. Chevannes and Gayle adolescents and children from poor 2001 among other studies have clearly environments, the government will need to shown that there is a correlation between establish a better welfare system, and, even economics and early sexual participation. more importantly, will need to steer the This means that we will need to do more country along a path that will guarantee the than convince some of our adolescents that populace a decent standard of living. sex is better enjoyed and is safer after the Policies should also aim at reducing the magic age of 18. If a child is fully engaged extreme inequality in the society, albeit the in adult economic activities at age 12, he or actions required are always going to be she will quite likely engage in sexual unpopular with the powerful high-income intercourse, which is an adult activity. If we group. convince a teenager to abstain from sex but his or her life circumstances dictate that he or she be an adult prematurely, how will we 28See Michaelmoore and Clarke 1993. 126 Male Survivability address the issue of sex as a tool for 2. Remove the focus from local survival? Roughly 8 to 10 percent of television. Teenagers watch cable, Jamaicans live in marginalized urban attend dances and parties and walk communities. Can we assume that morally the streets. Adolescent programs loaded education can save this group from which use local television networks the reality that life is a risk? Scholars at the will fail. The JACS Cable Network University of the West Indies have often alone has a much wider adolescent commented on the frankness of viewership in St. Catherine than TVJ reproductive health promotions in North and CVM combined. This is America and especially Europe. In fact common knowledge. If we are many Jamaican parents pledge not to serious about addressing the crisis expose their children to that kind of media. of STIs, then we need to have the The truth is that our children now have participation of Stone Love, Metro access to aspects of the media, including Media and other sound systems and the Internet that are more explicit than the in fact the entire music fraternity. well-designed, well-meaning promotions of the North that we have criticised in our 3. Finally, make condoms easily overly conservative frame. accessible. Eighty percent of allteenage pregnancies result from Here are three practical measures that sexual intercourse between youth – need to be considered: not older men and teenage girls. Older men have too much to risk 1. Reconstruct reproductive health and are more informed. The promo- tions to address the problem is that many young people problem groups: Inner city cannot access condoms due to the adolescents first, rural second and poor attitude of cashiers at suburban last. This means to pharmacies, and health and other change both the content and providers. If we can invest so much language. The intensity needs also in procuring Pepsi and other soft to be changed so that certain drink machines, why can we not aspects of the messages carry the purchase condom machines? In fact degree of seriousness that a plague multi-purpose vending machines such as AIDS requires. In other that sell other things at the same words the promotions will relate to time have proven to be most the fact that Jamaica is a complex successful. Machines can be placed society. Instead of one script for all, in the corners of pharmacies, at the three could be done depicting real edge of parks, in public toilets, in life situations in inner city, rural and toilets at work places and venues for suburban settings. every dance or public activity. 127 Male Survivability A number of programs can be created in to boys on the street through road-side the short-term to ameliorate the plight of shows and through national quizzes with adolescents in terms of drugs, violence and monetary rewards, an impact can be poor sexual practices. One of the most made. alarming findings was that teenagers are Frankly, there is much hope in this country. among the most likely to contract HIV. Even Research tells us that Jamaica responds more alarming is the fact that many youth, well to effective mass media campaigns. especially males, still believe a wide range This is part of the reason the National of myths about sex and STIs despite the Family Planning Board was able to make efforts of our education and health the “Two is Better than Too Many” promotion systems. The reality is that much campaign in the 1970s and 1980s a effort has been wasted as the programs phenomenal success. Let us not forget, have not been methodologically focused. however, that part of the reason Jamaica’s There needs to be greater investment in fertility rate dropped from over 4 per peer counseling. The more the counselor childbearing woman in the 1970s to 2.4 can relate to the experience of the youth, today is the immense upward social the method is likely to be better and the mobility of women, allowing more women content more relevant. Peer counselors to take control of their lives. The lesson here should be used to address issues of drug is that our programs must be accompanied awareness, STIs and violence in schools with overall positive changes in the society. and on the streets. Programs such as The problem is systemic, hence our Addiction Alert should be expanded. solutions should also be. Classes in personal development should be mandatory in schools. Objective 3: To get the media and the National school competitions should also Jamaican diaspora to become a part of be designed to encourage students to do the process of change. research on the crisis areas of drugs, The Caribbean Institute of Media and violence and sex. This and other programs Communication (CARIMAC) and the Press should be designed to encourage studies Association of Jamaica, as well as the and enhanced information about sex, Caribbean Child Development Centre, drugs and violence. There seems to be few Youth.now, Fathers Incorporated, Children problems in the number of First, Area Youth Foundation among other information/activities for adolescent boys local groups should collaborate to produce especially on sex – the problem is with our media tools for a campaign against methods. Boys like to speak about sex. violence and sexual abuse. Recently I saw They are quick to pass on information that adult black males get up from their seats is erroneous and to do so with a sense of and head to the bathroom in order to conviction. If the message can be conveyed conceal tears at a seminar on the situation 128 Male Survivability of youth. The occasion was the Reaching the core of our country’s Hard-to-Reach Youth Seminar held at the developmental problems. College of North-West London, June 18, 3. Jamaica has one of the largest 2001. The Area Youth Foundation had just Diaspora per capita in the world, completed a performance on the impact of probably beaten only by Irish and violence on children in Jamaica. The Jews. We have no excuse not to try reaction was immense – a quick exodus of to draw on our external resources men to the bathroom and the women, both monetary and expertise. unlike the men, crying openly. I could not help going to see if this was really what was The way forward is to have government, happening, macho men crying. After private sector, non-government reassuring a very tall and strong young organizations, community groups, man whose parents are Jamaicans that the international friends and the media unite in situation in Jamaica affects me in like an outright campaign to give our youth, not manner, he asked “What are you all doing only those of the upper classes, a chance in down there?” The reason for this personal life. experience is actually positive. Finally there is need for more research into 1. The youth are not hard to reach, the situation of Jamaican youth and they can help us realize in the survivability. Areas such as prostitution, most powerful ways how to help homosexuality, male bonding and street them. children are grossly under-researched, due partly to prejudices in the society. The 2. We are not short on resources, only University of the West Indies and other the will and courage to start the tertiary institutions also have a role to play. change. Helping adolescent males Scholars should be required to carry out the (and may I add females) will drive at responsibility that comes with the privilege of education. 129 Male Survivability GLOSSARY OF TERMS Baby father: father of a child, usually not Goose: term used to describe a person married to the mother of the child who gets tricked easily Baby mother: mother of a child, usually HEART/NTA: Human Employment and not married to the father of the child Resourse Training Programme/National Training Agency is a two decade old Corner crews: term used to refer to young programme designed to give school men (or women) of inner city communities leavers a second chance in both academic who identify with a non -criminal gang and technical skills training Don: person who heads a visible and Hustle: involvement in economic activities, powerful political or drug gang which are considered illegal or distasteful Shottas and Sprats: persons who act by mainstream society under the command of a don within a Juggle: involvement in more than one low- hierarchy, so that the shotta is next in paying economic activities command to the don Schoolers: youth attending school at the Downtown: geographically speaking, this primary or secondary levels refers to that aspect of the city of Kingston located south of Cross Roads; Sketel: a ‘loose’ young lady/female whose sociologically speaking, it refers to the sexual activities are considered distasteful areas where the urban poor reside to a community/not necessarily a prostitute Uptown: Those areas of Kingston located Yard: Space occupied by a family or above Cross Roads, especially the middle families that is fenced or protected or classs suburbs separated from the street or other such units 130 Male Survivability BIBLIOGRAPHY ALLEN, Caroline. 1997. 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