MINISTRY OF EDUCATION English Language Teacher’s Guide GRADE 9 September 2003 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Ministry of Education is grateful to the following persons whose dedication and expertise has produced this Grade 9 Teacher’s English Language Guide for secondary schools. Original Contributors Ingrid Barker NCERD Donna Chapman Ministry of Education Wendella Jarvis Mackenzie High Evadney Holder President’s College Hazel Moses NCERD Claudith Thompson University of Guyana Grace Trotman Alleyne’s High Reviewers Elizabeth Duncan Subject Specialist SSRP Vilma Lynch Subject Specialist SSRP Evadney Williams Snr. Subject Specialist SSRP Editor Hazel Moses NCERD FOREWORD It is acknowledged that thorough planning is essential for effective teaching and learning. Such planning is even more critical today when one considers the limited resources, both human and material which are available. The Ministry of Education, through the Secondary School Reform Project (SSRP), has developed curriculum materials that have been designed to improve the quality, equity and efficiency of secondary education. The curriculum materials include Grades 7-9 Curriculum Guides and Teachers Guides for Language, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies, Reading and Practical Activities Guides for Science. These materials have been tested in all secondary-age schools nationwide and are considered useful in providing teachers with a common curriculum framework for planning, monitoring and evaluating the quality of teaching and learning. The curriculum materials also provide a basis for continuous assessment leading to the National Third Form Examination (NTFE). The initial draft curriculum materials have been subjected to evaluation, by Heads of Departments, from all ten Administration Regions and Georgetown and they have been subsequently revised to reflect the views expressed by teachers. The revised curriculum materials are now published as National Curriculum documents to provide consistency and support for teachers in the process of planning for an effective delivery of the curriculum. All secondary teachers must ensure that they make good use of these curriculum materials so that the quality of teaching and learning can be improved in all schools. Ed Caesar Chief Education Officer. PREFACE This Grade 9 Teacher’s English Language Guide for secondary schools is designed to help teachers acquire the necessary skills in teaching this subject. A team of Subject Specialists has produced this guide to meet the needs of our Guyanese teachers. The methodology suggested in the lessons will definitely enhance students’ understanding of how they could improve and enhance their language skills. New and technical approaches are treated with ample illustrations, content and concepts that are located within the students’ experiential background. A wide range of enrichment activities is included to infuse enjoyment into the learning process, as enjoyment should be the corner stone of any learning. In addition, teachers are helped in assessing students’ learning. I wish every teacher all the best for a successful implementation of the Grade 9 English Language Guide. Good luck !!! Ingrid Barker Head, Curriculum Development and Implementation Unit. National Centre for Educational Resource Development. CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………….. 1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION……………………………………………… 3 What is Language…………………………………………………. 3 Language Across the Curriculum………………………………… 3 Skills………………………………………………………………… 4 Basic Language Skills…………………………………………….. 5 Learning Objectives……………………………………………….. 7 Types of Teaching Strategies…………………………………….. 8 Environmental Education…………………………………………. 11 The Learning Process…………………………………………….. 12 Learning Styles…………………………………………………….. 13 Principles of Effective Teaching………………………………….. 15 Preparing to Teach………………………………………………… 17 Basic Steps in Lesson Planning………………………………….. 24 UNIT 1 WRITTEN EXPRSSION………………………………………………………... Developing Composition Skills………………………………………………… 25 Understanding how a Composition should be Written………… 26 Paragraph Structure………………………………………………. 27 Types of Paragraphs………………………………………………. 33 Ways of Development……………………………………………. 35 Introductory Paragraph…………………………………………... 40 Concluding Paragraphs………………………………………….. 42 Achieving Coherence…………………………………………….. 43 Narrative Writing Purpose of Narrative Writing 47 Language Features……………………………………………….. 47 Narrative Framework……………………………………………… 49 Graphic Organisers……………………………………………….. 50 Time Relationships in Narrative…………………………………. 52 Expository Writing Persuasive Writing……………………………………………………………………. 55 Ways of Persuading………………………………………………. 56 The Argument……………………………………………………… 58 Essay………………………………………………………………… 63 Letter………………………………………………………………… 67 Advertisement………………………………………………………. 67 Letter Writing ……………………………………………………………………….. 69 Formal Letter……………………………………………………….. 70 CONTENTS Page Letter of Application…………………………………………….. 71 Business Letter…………………………………………………. 76 Friendly Letter…………………………………………………… 78 Envelopes and Folding………………………………………… 79 Report Writing…………………………………………………………………. 81 Report Letter……………………………………………………. 82 Research Report……………………………………………….. 84 UNIT 2 CONPREHENSION Overview………………………………………………………………………… 88 Pre-Reading Strategies……………………………………………………….. 90 Anticipation Guide………………………………………………. 90 K-W-L Strategy………………………………………………….. 93 Analogy Graphic Organiser……………………………………. 95 Frayer Model…………………………………………………….. 97 Proposition/Support Outline……………………………………. 99 Concept/Definition Mapping…………………………………….. 101 Reading………………………………………………………………………….. 103 Literal Comprehension………………………………………….. 103 Time and Place Relationships………………………………….. 105 Cause and Effect Relationship…………………………………. 106 Fact and Opinion…………………………………………………. 109 Inferential Comprehension……………………………………… 111 Summary…………………………………………………………………………. 116 Graphics………………………………………………………………………….. 119 Maps………………………………………………………………. 120 Venn Diagram……………………………………………………. 121 Graphs……………………………………………………………. 123 Understanding Text…………………………………………………………….. 124 Figurative Language……………………………………………………………. 131 Structured Note Taking………………………………………………………… 133 Speaking and Listening………………………………………………………… 136 Delivering a Speech……………………………………………… 137 Conducting a Meeting…………………………………………… 138 UNIT 3 GRAMMAR Overview…………………………………………………………….…………… 139 How to Teach Grammar……………………………………………………….. 140 Subject/Verb Agreement………………………………………… 146 Voice of Verbs……………………………………………………. 150 Compatibility of Tenses………………………………………….. 151 Sentences………………………………………………………… 152 Clauses……………………………………………………………. 155 CONTENTS Page Sentence Fragments………………………………………………………….. 158 Sample Lessons ………………………………………………………………. 159 Glossary………………………………………………………………………… 168 References……………………………………………………………………… 171 INTRODUCTION Language and communication are basic aspects of human behaviour and can be communicated through oral and written means. A person uses words to articulate in oral and in written forms, to manipulate ideas, to shape thoughts and to understand that these key concepts are necessary in all forms of communication. The effective use of language has deteriorated over recent years, and today there is renewed emphasis on the acquisition of language skills. In the Guyanese context the English language is an indispensable tool, it is not only a subject but also a medium to instruct in all disciplines. Good language achieves the purpose for which it is intended, therefore, as language teachers you have a crucial role to play in the language development of your students. Your aim as teachers of English is to ensure that young people who graduate are both confident and competent in dealing with the many challenges they would face in the use of language, whether in school, in the workplace or in their personal lives. Students have now completed two years in the secondary school, and would have been exposed to language skills and aspects of language structures and use, required at those levels. These students would have achieved varying levels of language proficiency. It is your ongoing task as the teacher to continue to provide opportunities for further language development in these students, so that they exercise their full potential to achieve the required level of competence in language use. The Grade 9 Language Arts Curriculum Guide, like the previous Grades, describes the basic language experiences that students can be involved in at this level. The language components: Written Expression, Comprehension and Grammar are presented separately; however, the English curriculum is also about literature and about experiences. The components are inherently integrated and are building blocks for each other. Though listening and speaking 1 are two of the skills that interlace the language curriculum, they are treated separately so as to target and develop competence in oratory, which is a skill needed for specialised communication at specific forums and occasions. The Grade 9 Teacher’s Guide aims to assist teachers to implement the curriculum in such a way that students acquire the more advanced skills needed. The Guide provides teachers with background information for topics and sub– topics; suggestions for practical classroom activities; a repertoire of teaching skills and strategies; and ways to introduce, conduct, conclude and evaluate lessons among other considerations. Also included in the Guide are relevant aspects of education principles and theories that can be used by the Head of Department to train young teachers and upgrade others on the job. 2 BACKGROUND INFORMATION What is Language? As teachers, you have the unique responsibility to assist your students in their growth towards language maturity. To perform this task, you need to have a clear view of what language is and ways in which children acquire its skills, • Language is a means through which people, who share a common culture, communicate with each other. It is clearly linked to our identity and personal development. • Language is a social tool by which we share feelings, ideas, opinions, and knowledge. We use language to represent and make sense of the world around us. • Language is rule governed and has to be taught. It can be learned through methods that employ imitation, association, differentiation and categorisation. • Vocal sounds which verbalise words, and written symbols which visualise words, comprise language. Language across the Curriculum The student who is articulate in oral and written language, who can use words to manipulate ideas to shape thoughts and to understand key concepts, has an indispensable tool for all school learning, because the ability to communicate through language is a necessary skill in all subject areas. But what do we mean by ‘language across all curriculum areas’? It certainly does not mean that a teacher of science or social studies must take responsibility for teaching sentence structure, grammar and composition skills in their subject areas. Rather, language across the curriculum would ensure that the student is cognisant of the fact that the use of good language structures gives clear meaning to what they want to convey. 3 A. This involves students • Using correct grammatical structures in writing. • Presenting thoughts in an ordered and classified manner. • Learning the terms appropriate to the subject. • Using with increasing precision the vocabulary of their subject. B. This involves teachers • Modeling the standard language as the lesson is delivered. • Attending to the conventions of written language when marking scripts. SKILLS • Skills enable a person to respond appropriately to situations, or to initiate change. • Skills are developed through deliberate or unplanned practice. • Skills are not merely physical acts; in fact, the only physical act involves speaking. Types of Skills (a). Practical or Productive Skills This skill is related to procedures or methods and the outcomes are important e.g. the ability to construct a paragraph, write an essay etc. (b). Social or Affective Skills Types of behaviour are related to these skills but there are no fixed procedures or methods to use to achieve this skill. It is concerned with process rather than product e.g. the ability to work as a member of a team or to convey understanding and appreciation. The practical and social skills cover any skill that can be examined. 4 (c). Basic Skills The basic skills are literacy, oracy and numeracy. These skills open the way or enhance other skill acquisition. The other skills that are enhanced and acquired are problem solving, manipulative ability, everyday coping and relationships. (d). Transferable Skills These skills can be applied to a number of different tasks e.g. reading, decision-making, drawing etc. Teaching for ‘transfer’ requires the teacher to use approaches in which the wider application of skills is made apparent. Students’ attention must be drawn to the adaptability of what they are learning e. g. The teacher in a skill-focused programme is a facilitator for experiences which give students the chance to practise the skills Basic Language Skills Speaking, listening, reading and writing are the basic skills that are found across the curriculum, and these skills are complementary processes. Students should at all times be given opportunities to engage in experiences that facilitate and exercise them during the lesson for a more formidable development of English. As children talk together and share what they read, and respond to each other’s written work, they grow towards full language maturity, and also achieve a major role of instruction which is to be better thinking students. Teachers are therefore challenged to help students think critically and imaginatively and speak, listen, read and write capably and effectively. Goals Speaking – To develop students’ ability to speak (a). formally, semi-formally and informally with confidence, clarity, and fluency (b). in a variety of situations for a variety of audiences 5 (c). for a range of purposes of increasing complexity Listening – To develop students’ ability to listen (a). with an increased span of concentration in order to ask and to respond to questions and express opinions (b). attentively to readings to appreciate stories, poems, drama and other literary material (c). to respond appropriately, so as to give, receive and follow precise instructions when pursuing a task individually or as a group member Reading – To develop students’ ability to (a). read with fluency and confidence, a range of different kinds of material using reading methods appropriate to the material (b). read meaningfully to understand and interpret written text (c). read for information, for interest, for entertainment and for the extension of experience and insight that poetry and fiction afford Writing – To develop students’ ability to (a). write confidently for a range of purposes and to a variety of audiences (b). organise the content of what is written in ways appropriate to the purpose (c). use the mechanics of writing, so as to convey intended meaning Thinking is often considered to be the fifth language art. It serves as the foundation for and is the thread that weaves together the listening, speaking, reading and writing skills. All the levels of thinking in the process of learning is classified in Bloom’s taxonomy of the cognitive domain. The levels of thinking are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. 6 Learning Objectives Learning objectives should include the learner’s development of: Skills to provide practical ways of doing things Knowledge to have a framework of ideas with which to make sense of their learning experience Attitudes that are necessary for positive achievement Learning objectives can be broken down into the following categories that constitute Bloom’s Taxonomy. Knowledge The ability to understand and recall information and facts Comprehension The ability to understand what is being communicated and make use of the material or idea being communicated without necessarily relating it to other material or seeing its fullest implications Application The ability to abstract, relate or apply general ideas, procedures, principles or theories to explain specific situations or phenomena Analysis The ability to break down information into its constituent parts such that each part is understood and/or relationship between is explicit Synthesis The ability to put together parts so as to form a whole. This involves working with pieces and parts, and combining and arranging them in such a way as to create new patterns or structures Evaluation The ability to make quantitative and qualitative judgments about the degree to which this information satisfies certain criteria 7 Types of Teaching Strategies Teaching strategies can be classified as Expository, Discovery, Exploratory and Evaluative. Expository Methods Lecturing This is when the teacher provides new information by lecturing to students. Students are required to process the information by paying attention to the teacher. Learning takes place as students link new information with relevant previous knowledge. It therefore means that the lecture method is most effective when students have the necessary background knowledge with which to make meaningful links with the new information being presented. The lecture method is particularly useful when dealing with a relatively large class. Demonstrations This is another form of the expository method. This method is particularly useful when students need to have a concrete experience to facilitate learning. Demonstrations usually arouse students’ interest and provide excitement in the class. This method can also be used when ♦ there are insufficient materials ♦ the students are unable to do a particular activity ♦ there are safety and space considerations ♦ it is necessary for all students to have a common reference for a particular learning activity. Discovery Methods Discovery methods include practical activities and field visits. These methods are useful especially for concept development. They require students to process information by doing, observing and engaging in other process skills such as classifying, measuring and making inferences. In applying these process skills 8 the students abstract salient characteristics of a particular situation for concept development and for application of concepts and principles to solve the problem. Discovery/Exploratory methods are usually practical activities such as hands-on activities in science, experimenting, art-work, making models and projects. Participatory Methods These methods include group discussions, debates, role-play, simulation and drama. They are particularly useful in dealing with topical issues, values in education and for the development of desirable attitudes. They provide opportunity for the students to express how they feel and what they think in a non-threatening manner. They can also be entertaining and appropriate activities that allow all students to participate in the learning experience. Evaluative Methods These methods are used at the end of a lesson for review and to check whether or not the objectives of the lesson were achieved. Such methods include questions, quizzes and tests. Selection and use of the Teaching Strategies It is important for you the teacher to use a variety of teaching strategies. Your selection of a strategy should depend on factors such as ♦ the topic to be taught ♦ the number of students for the particular lesson ♦ the ability of the students ♦ the number of different activities taking place simultaneously ♦ the demand of the learning task Use of Demonstrations When using demonstrations, you should Ensure that all the students are able to see what is taking place 9 Elicit from students what they are observing and point out any special features if necessary Depending on the activity, get some students involved by asking them to serve as volunteers Prepare and rehearse the demonstrations to ensure that it works Point to note Demonstrations can be used in all subject areas. Participatory Methods When using this method you should Ensure that no student is put in an embarrassing position. This can happen if the activity deals with a sensitive matter such as family relationship or socio-economic conditions. Let the students enjoy the process but ensure that the point of the lesson is not lost by asking and getting them in a summary of the lesson. Integration Integration is a teaching strategy that is used to link the subject matter in all disciplines. This strategy can be planned or it may be incidental. It is not merely the use of the content of one subject within another subject that constitutes integration, but it is through discussion and exploration of the issues in the content that facilitates integration. It is not necessary to integrate every lesson, for some lessons require students to focus on the language skill/s alone e.g. grammar lessons, while others are naturally integrated e.g. expository writing integrated with science – How to conduct an experiment/process. In any lesson you can use more than one of the strategies. For example, a lesson may begin with a demonstration and then students can participate through 10 discussion and at the end of the learning session an evaluative method is used to determine how much was learnt. Environmental Education The Environment is not merely the physical, the biotic and the cultural, but also refers to the immediate environs of the home, the school and the community. It is therefore important to foster environmental responsibilities in students, teachers and support staff. ♦ Environmental Education (EE) is about teaching the student about the environment, in the environment and most important, for the environment. ♦ EE enables interaction to exist between people and the environment. ♦ EE aims to develop in students the skills, knowledge, understanding and values that will enable them to make informed decisions and take action for the environment. The Learning Context for EE The ethos of the school is an important and powerful dimension in developing in young people values, attitudes and behaviour. “The quality of the relationships between people in the classroom and school, as well as the quality of the surroundings inside and around the school, are key factors in creating a stimulating learning atmosphere for students and teachers.” For effective EE, schools should practise what they teach. Curriculum Content The environmental content of science and geography and to a lesser extent history and social studies are explicitly identified within the programme of study. The other subjects could develop knowledge, understanding and skills relevant to EE by using environmental contexts and issues. 11 Teaching and Learning Styles of EE The development of students’ ability to express their own views, and listen to those of others, form reasoned opinions, work co-operatively, make decisions and take action for the environment is related to the adopted teaching and learning styles e. g. co-operative learning, enquiry-based approach, use of real life issues, use of secondary sources and first hand experience. THE LEARNING PROCESS Learning is a process by which knowledge, skills, and attitudes are acquired. Students learn best through: ♦ Making connections - connecting new knowledge to what is already learned ♦ Meaningful experience - experiences to encourage enquiry and discovery ♦ Talking things through - discussion with others ♦ Writing things down - expressing ideas and experiences ♦ Creative expression – exploring through art, dance, drama, music and craft ♦ Praise and recognition – for success, effort and progress ♦ Challenge and expectation – acquirable standard of achievement ♦ Responsibility and self assessment – evaluating their own learning The process is of maximum value to the student when the learning context is structured, when learning styles are taken into account and when the teaching style is professional. The Learning Context Students need to be able to make sense of their learning environment and should be confident with what they are about to learn, be told what is expected of them and what the learning outcome will be. Teachers will therefore need to provide learning guidelines in the introduction of the lesson. Learning guidelines are to a student what a road map is to a motorist. They map out for the students what is to be learnt, how it is to be learnt and the steps to 12 follow in order to achieve the intended learning. What they need to know: What is to be taught and its benefit to them What the teacher expects of them in relation to the lesson What they may/may not use When they may/may not do certain things. How they can succeed in tasks How the lesson will be evaluated Telling students how they will be evaluated helps them to know what kind of learning will be acquired from the lesson. Students may prepare differently for different types of evaluation. To specify evaluation procedures, the teacher can tell the students what kinds of tests will be given, what kinds of questions will be asked and what kind of knowledge or skills will be evaluated. Learning Styles There are four learning styles that are utilised by students in and out of the classroom. Students learn through seeing, talking, doing and touching. In other words, the human senses are the avenues for learning. Students respond in two ways to learning. There is the cognitive response that comprises the learning styles and there is the social response that indicates how they interact with the learning. A. Cognitive Response LOOKERS –Visual learners They like to see what they learn. Method to use • Demonstrations and illustrations • Visual aids, charts, and pictures that focus attention on the lesson • Written examples on the chalkboard 13 TALKERS - Auditory learners Like to listen and talk about what they learn. Method to use • Give verbal instruction and affirm students verbally. • Use sound in the environment e.g. recordings, audio-visuals. • Allow student to lead in discussion. DOERS and TOUCHERS – Kinaesthetic learners They like to be physically involved in what they learn. Methods to use Tasks that • Manipulation and construction of models e.g. drama, games etc. • Create an action–oriented environment • Encourage peer-teaching so that they can do things for others Basically students learn to some extent through all these styles, but each student learns best through one style that is dominant and is his/her main channel of learning. B. Social Response (1). Attention seekers (3). Intermittent workers (2). Solitary workers (4). Quiet collaborators Teachers, you need to get to know your students’ cognitive and social responses as individual learners, so that you would be able to match and accommodate your teaching to most of their learning styles. 14 Principles of Effective Teaching 1. Have clear goals for instruction 2. Ensure the relevance of classroom activities to real-world context and student’s lives 3. Exhibit adaptation to diversity by selecting instructional strategies and materials appropriate to age, background, culture, and special needs of individual students. 4. Create a classroom climate that promotes learning, intrinsic motivation, and achievement. 5. Encourage social interaction related to classroom subject matter. 6. Provide a structure that guides students’ learning and behaviour. 7. Facilitate effective information processing. 8. Support mastery of fundamentals, including proficiency in the basic knowledge and skills that provide the foundation for advanced learning. 9. Provide the challenge essential for cognitive development. 10. Promote higher-level thinking skills. 11. Communicate realistic high expectations for students’ performance. 12. Engage in regular monitoring of students’ behaviour and progress towards classroom goals. A. Elements of teaching style Professional Skills (a). Interpersonal skills, relating/motivating/communicating etc. (b). Classroom management (c). Planning and preparation (d). Matching tasks to children (e). Assessment and record keeping Professional Knowledge (a). How children learn and develop (b). Awareness of curriculum developments (c) Current educational debate (d). Recent classroom research (e). New materials for teaching and learning 15 Professional Attitudes (a). Personal qualities, enthusiasm/energy/confidence/flexibility etc. (b). Personal values and beliefs (c). Personal relationships with colleagues etc (d). Professional and life goals (e). Self awareness and self appraisal B. Characteristics of progressive and traditional teachers The teacher’s professional skill is characterised in the way he/she delivers the curriculum. The characteristics displayed should show him/her to be a progressive or traditional teacher according to two schools of thought. However, the characteristics reveal in both cases extremities in the role of both the teacher and student. The table below blends the characteristics of the progressive with the characteristics of the traditional teacher to produce the desired characteristics for a teacher in the Guyanese context. Characteristics 1. Integrated subject matter 2. Teacher as guide to educational experiences 3. Active student role 4. Learning by discovery techniques, practice and memory learning 5. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation 6. Equal priority to academic, social and emotional development 7. Adequate testing 8. Accent on cooperative group work mixed with healthy competition 9. Teaching in and outside the classroom base 10. Accent on creative expression 16 PREPARING TO TEACH The Language lesson like all other lessons aim to help students learn, apply and understand new concepts. In preparing the lesson, the teacher will: • Formulate the objectives. • Select the content. • Select the teaching methods. • Select the materials needed. • Select the method of evaluation. There should be congruence between the stated objectives, content and evaluation procedure. The thought process that is used in a lesson results in the outcome that is measured as the performance. The expected performance or outcome of any lesson is stated in the objective. A. Objectives (1). Learning Objectives A learning objective is a clear and unambiguous statement about what the learner should know, understand and be able to do as a result of some learning experience. Learning objectives must include the learners’ development of skills, knowledge, understanding and attitude. The learning objectives are given in the curriculum guides. Skills provide practical ways of doing things. Knowledge provides a framework of ideas with which to make sense of his / her learning experience. Understanding applies the skills and knowledge gained to solve problems in unfamiliar situations. Attitudes respond positively to new learning. 17 (2). Behavioural Objectives The learning objectives that you wish to achieve at the end of the lesson are stated in behavioural terms. Behavioural objectives specify what the learner will be doing when an evaluation is made to discover whether the intention has been achieved. These objectives must be clear, measurable and achievable. Stating Behavioural Objectives Performance Specifies the kind of behaviour the instruction attempts to produce and that will be accepted as evidence that the learner has achieved the objective. Condition Describes the important conditions under which the performance or behaviour is expected to occur. Criteria Specifies the criteria of performance which would determine how good the student’s performance must be for it to be acceptable. Terms such as ‘to identify’, ‘to state’ and ‘to describe’ indicate the form of behaviour the students are expected to demonstrate in terms of skills, knowledge and understanding. The attitudinal behaviour is not stated in the objective as it is not measured but mainly observed through enthusiasm and interest. The tables following show the categories with some behavioural terms for stating objectives and an example of a behavioural objective. 18 Knowledge Knowledge Students will be able to To define identify and state the To describe parts of speech of all To identify the words used in To state given sentences. To list To recall To recognise To match To name To acquire To collect Comprehension Comprehension After listening to the To translate reading of a story, To give in own words To illustrate students will be able to To prepare re-write the entire story To read in their own words. To represent To change To convert To distinguish To estimate To explain Application Application Students will be able to To apply produce and dramatise To relate a scene from a section To develop of a story they have To generalise read. To transfer To prepare To produce To show To solve To use To manipulate To operate 19 Analysis Analysis Students will be able to To distinguish classify the types of all To classify the nouns taken from a To detect given paragraph. To deduce To categorise To break down To discriminate To analyse To identify To infer To outline To point out Synthesis Synthesis Students will be able to To write write a short story from To tell a narrative poem after To relate discussing the plot of To produce the poem. To transmit To modify To document To create To compose To re-write To revise To plan To design To derive To develop To combine Evaluation Evaluation Students will be able to To compare compare their To conclude predictions with their To justify To judge actual findings after To standardise reading the To appraise comprehension To summarise passage. To discriminate 20 THE LESSON Content In the Curriculum Guide, the English A content is segmented into its components being Written Expression, Comprehension and Grammar. The content is so structured to ensure that it is relevant and adequate to cover a year programme and that it is progressive from Grade 7 - 9. It is expected that teachers would choose from the components the topics that are interrelated and would be a unit of work e.g. A teaching unit could be taken directly from the English Language text or its parts can be selected from several texts. The teacher must ensure that the unit of work planned meets the needs of the recipients. When planning a particular lesson from the unit, the teacher is required to include the content in the lesson plan. The content would include: The sentences or models to be used to teach the concept. The practice exercise/s. The evaluation exercise/s. Introducing the lesson The introduction comes at the beginning of each lesson. Purpose • To get the students interested in the topic • To motivate the students in preparation for the lesson • To establish the accuracy of previous knowledge • To introduce adequate background information about the topic • To give students learning guidelines. There are several things a teacher can do to achieve the purpose of the introduction. 21 Ways to Introduce a Lesson (1). Tell a story: A story will easily capture students’ attention. The story must hold relevance to the topic for its use to be worthwhile. Use: Narrative Writing, Grammar (2). Use simulation or drama: Using simulation means having a ‘pretend’ situation that is similar to something in real life. Students enjoy being involved and will probably be eager to dramatise something related to the topic that is being taught. Use: Comprehension, Written Expression (3). Pose an interesting problem or question: This approach may motivate students to begin to search for answers. Problems and questions should be carefully selected to suit the students’ level of interest and ability. Use: Oral Expression, Written Expression - Narrative (4). Draw comparisons: Comparisons can be made between new topics and topics which are already familiar to the students This activity allows the child to be comfortable with the new learning as he/she senses progress in learning and feels challenged to achieve. Use: Grammar (5). Offer incentives: Teachers could point out to the students the value of learning a particular topic. For instance, in a lesson the teacher might say, “It is important for you to write correct grammar, so that your intended meaning is clear, and you can gain better marks.” Another incentive that can be offered is the prospect of a longer recess. For the use of incentives to be effective, you must select things that are desired by your students. (6). Arouse controversy: This is an effective way to get students to express their opinions. For example, a teacher might say, “We should ban mini-buses and return to the use of 22 government public transport.” This extreme position on the transportation issue may get students to give other opinions. Another method of arousing controversy is to present a topic about which the students can hold a debate. Use: Oral Expression, Written Expression – Points of View (7). Present interesting audio-visuals: It can open the door for lively discussion. An unusual object or an exciting picture can inspire many ideas from students. These techniques are not confined to introducing lessons but can be used effectively within the developmental stages of the lesson. When trying to motivate students, teachers should remember that each student is different; what motivates one student may not motivate another. Therefore teachers should be careful not to use the same strategy repeatedly over a short time, because the students will soon tire of it. Assessment Students can be assessed at each stage of the lesson to determine their readiness for the next stage. Then there is an assessment usually at the end of the lesson or unit for review and to evaluate whether or not the objectives of the lesson or unit were achieved. Assessment Methods There are five main methods: 1. Completion 2. Objective tests 3. Situational 4. Projects 5. Time-based 23 Basic steps in Lesson Planning The following guidelines should be followed when preparing lesson plans. Form/Level: This guides you to the following ♦ The intellectual ability of the students ♦ Their attention span ♦ The level of information that can be given Time: Tells you how to distribute the allocated time on the various sections of the lesson. Determines the amount of content that can be taught Objective: Directs the selection and organization of strategy Previous Knowledge: States students’ pre-requisite knowledge on which to build Content: Material to be taught- ♦ It should be relevant and appropriate. ♦ Information should be accurate and precise ♦ Must be organized from the known to the unknown Introduction: Stimulates interest and curiosity and sets the tone of the lesson. ♦ This can take the form of a story, question, picture etc Development: Impartation of the concepts and facts of the content ♦ Using materials and background information to teach new ideas and concepts ♦ Verbal interaction between you and the students and students and students Summary: To reinforce what was taught ♦ Single aspects of the lesson that were of greatest importance Evaluation: Activities at the end of the lesson ♦ Indicate if objectives were achieved/not achieved ♦ Determine how much learning has occurred ♦ Identify skills students possess or should possess 24 UNIT 1 WRITTEN EXPRESSION Written expression is based on oral expression and students should be encouraged to explore their physical environment, form their impressions of what they perceive and then express their thoughts verbally. When this is done, the basis is laid for the teaching of written expression. All expressions whether oral or written, require the words, and the larger unit of that expression put into an arrangement that seeks to accomplish the purpose of the expression. This arrangement is composition and whether it is effective or not, will depend on the thinking that goes into it. Writing is a mode of thinking. In order to produce a composition, writers must generate ideas, plan for both the process of writing and for the written product itself, translate thought into print, revise what has been written and evaluate the effectiveness of their efforts. Developing Composition Skills No written expression, not even a sentence or short note, will be effective unless it is composed well. Readiness It is argued that readiness for written composition is just as important as readiness for reading. It is the view that writing readiness builds on linguistic readiness, conceptual readiness, and on an understanding of the composing process. (a) Linguistic Readiness This is developed through oral language. 25 ♦ Give students activities with vocabulary development, with sentence development that uses the various syntactic patterns of language. ♦ Give them activities such as drama and oral reporting. Such activities will help them to develop a sense of audience. Since all these skills are essential for effective written composition, the language programme should stress the importance or oral language skills before and during formal written instructions. (b) Conceptual Readiness Students must be able to answer several questions before they can write effective compositions. These questions are 1. What is the purpose of the composition? 2. How does the composition relate to the audience? 3. What are the parts of the composition? 4. How do the parts relate to each other and the composition’s purpose? 5. What is the controlling or main idea? 6. Why are they important in a composition? 7. How are supporting ideas developed? 8. Why are they important? The answer to each of these questions is a brick in the foundation structure that will enable students to write build on and produce effective compositions. Understanding how a Composition should be written Writing an effective composition with a central theme and substantiating information requires the following ♦ A search for information 26 ♦ An incubation period during which thoughts can develop ♦ Writing, and often rewriting until the intended message is presented to the appropriate audience The writer of the composition needs to search and select information then reflect on the main and supporting ideas in the gathered information and draw conclusions or form new ideas. Greene and Petty (1971) say that “Children do not learn to write by having writing tasks assigned to them without regard to their interests, their experiences, and the value or lack of value they hold for the assignment. They may write, in the sense of simply putting words on paper, usually no more than necessary ‘get by’ – but will not write from thought, from eagerness or from desire.” Rather, children are encouraged to write if the topic has an apparent, meaningful purpose and is an outgrowth of an activity and experience. They will write when they have something to say, and when they feel that someone will read and appreciate what they have written. For example, a student will gladly write a summary of an experiment if he/she enjoyed working on it. Children usually have much to write about. By careful guidance and planning of your class activities you can help them to see the need to write. Paragraph Development A prerequisite for a good composition is paragraph development therefore it should be the focus of several teaching sessions. 27 The student, in addition to writing a variety of clear meaningful sentences also needs to be able to organize ideas into paragraphs. The following is a definition of a paragraph A paragraph is a group of closely related sentences dealing with a single topic or idea. Usually, one sentence, called the topic sentence, states the main idea of the paragraph. All the other sentences must be related to this topic sentence. These sentences further explain or support the main idea. Activities to teach Paragraph Writing (a) Grouping and Classifying Related Ideas Students must be able to group and classify related ideas, since the ability to do so demands that students be able to understand relationships. Such classifications may relate to other content areas e.g. science or mathematics. (b) Identifying the Main Idea If students cannot select the main idea from a short story or paragraph, they will have difficulty understanding and choosing a main idea of their own. Some activities to help them are - choosing the best title for a paragraph or short story - underlining the main idea in a story or paragraph - writing titles for a paragraph or a short story - selecting the main idea from a series of pictures which tell a story A way to help students grasp the concept of a paragraph’s controlling idea is to have them look at textbooks that use sub-headings which could be used as a guide to finding the main idea. These sub-headings are really controlling ideas of the section and can be turned into questions. For 28 example, in a chapter entitled ‘Transportation’, a sub-heading might read, ‘Land Transportation’. This sub-heading can be turned into questions such as: 1. How are we transported on land? 2. Kinds of land transportation? They can then read the paragraph to determine which of the questions is answered. You can then point out to the students that the details that answered the question are the support to the main idea. The main idea is found in the question which is – kinds of land transportation. That is the general information the writer is conveying. ♦ You can also lead a discussion to develop the concept that the paragraphs are written to provide the answer to the controlling question and do not include unrelated ideas. ♦ You can also help your students to identify the possible locations for implied or stated main ideas (the beginning, middle or ending) and give the key statement that conveys the main idea. The topic sentence can be in the middle, at the end or anywhere in between. When the writer uses an introduction to arouse the reader’s interest, he places the topic sentence in the middle. In the following paragraph, which sentence is the topic sentence? How many sentences make up the introduction to the paragraph? Example Some people say it’s boring. Others say it’s for grandmothers. Others think it’s a waste of time. But many people find smocking interesting and relaxing. A former popular male basketball player does smocking as a hobby. He says it helps him to relax and stay calm. He takes his smocking with him to card games and works on it to help himself keep a straight face. As you can imagine, no one ever calls him a sissy. 29 ♦ While the first sentence says that some thing is boring, the paragraph states how interesting and relaxing smocking is. ♦ Sentences 1 – 3 are merely the introduction, while the fourth sentence, “but many … relaxing”, contains the main idea. Sometimes the topic sentence is near the end of the paragraph, or may even be the final sentence. Writers provide information; then build up to the main idea. It was 04:30 hr. in the morning on April 12, 1861. Suddenly, there was a flash of light. A mortar shell burst over Fort Sumter, in Charlestown, South Carolina. For 34 hours, the Confederate troops from the South battered the Federal troops who were in the fort. Finally, Major Robert Anderson, the Federal commander of the fort agreed to surrender the fort to the Confederates. The next day, President Abraham Lincoln asked the northern states for 75,000 fighting men. The American Civil war had begun. 1. What is the main idea, and where is it mentioned? 2. Each sentence gives information about an incident. 3. Which sentence/s set/s the scene? No. 1 & 2 4. Which one tells about the firing on a fort? “A mortar…in the fort.” 5. What does sentence 5 tell about? The surrendering of the fort 6. What was President’s Lincoln’s role in the passage? His request for troops from the north intensified the conflict. 7. To which sentence do all the other sentences relate? The final one 8. All of the preceding sentences lead up to the topic sentence, “The American … begun.” 30 Newspaper Article HEARNS K. O.’S SHULER IN 1! Thomas Hearns, the 27-year- When the referee, Richard old fighter from Detroit, won the Steele, finished his 10-count, North American Boxing Hearns threw his hands up in the Federation’s middleweight title sign of victory and left the ring when he knocked out James grinning. Shuler, the champion, in the first Hearns made $1 million for round. the fight with Shuler tonight. If One minute and 13 seconds he gets a rematch with Hagler, into the match, Hearns hit Shuler who beat him in three rounds with a right hand that put the last April, he’ll earn $3.5 loser on his back on the canvas. million. Students should examine newspaper articles to locate the topic sentence/s of paragraphs. Discuss with them any differences therein, e.g. it is presented in columns; sometimes a paragraph is one long sentence; the information is summarised in the first sentence or paragraph. In the article above the main idea and the most important information are in the first sentence. All the subsequent sentences or paragraphs only supply the details. Reporters do this to facilitate the busy reader; thus allowing him/her to read just the first part of an article and get almost all of the information needed. Teachers should encourage Grade 9 students to state the main idea at some point in their paragraph. However, students should be aware that in many paragraphs there is no topic sentence at all. The writer supplies the details or information of the topic, and students have to figure out what is the main idea. Passage Peters, a single parent, wakes his children, gets them dressed and takes them to school. He arrives at work late almost every morning. Whenever he meets friends after work, he looks at his watch constantly to see if it’s time to collect them. At 18:30 hr. he picks 31 them up from the day-care centre and heads home to cook dinner. He puts the children in bed by nine. After doing the dishes, he drinks a beer in front of the TV, or if he finds the energy, he plays his banjo. He figures that he sees his girlfriend about two hours a week. After reading the passage, students figure out what is the main idea, and give reasons to support their suggestions. Teacher writes the most appropriate ones on the chalkboard e.g. 1. Peters is a single parent. 2. Peters spends a lot of time with his children. 3. Peters is so busy that he doesn’t have much time for himself. 4. It’s difficult for Peters to work and take care of his children. 5. Peters doesn’t get to spend much time with his girlfriend, because he has to take care of his children. Students check each answer and select the best one. According to the passage: ♦ Peters is more than a single parent. ♦ Nos. 2, 4 and 5 only tell a part of what the passage is about, i.e. give some supporting details. ♦ Since No. 3 includes all the ideas in the passage, it is the best choice. Note that every sentence demonstrates that Peters is so busy that he doesn’t have much time for himself. (c) Supporting the Main Idea A paragraph develops a main idea, and supports the main idea with facts. When students write their own paragraphs and research facts or ideas to include, they often have difficulty sorting important and trivial information. ♦ You can have students turn their main ideas into questions which will help them see whether a detail is important in answering questions. 32 ♦ You can also list a number of details that accompany an idea, and discuss with the students which are the most important and why. (d) Logical Sequence of Ideas Students dictating stories about their own experiences can be one of the best ways to illustrate the concept of logical sequencing. For example, after students have done an experiment or gone on a field trip, they can be asked to dictate a report of their experiences, and then the class can talk about the sequence, whether it was logical or not. Students can also be asked to draw pictures showing the steps in an experiment, then, write sentences or paragraphs to correspond with the pictures. (e) Mechanics of writing Punctuation, subject/verb agreement, spelling and such can be anticipated and taught in the grammar session, or can be given attention as the problems arise during the writing of the composition. Types of Paragraphs Descriptive Paragraph This type of paragraph gives a clear ‘mind picture’ of objects, scenes, persons and experiences. It makes use of striking and significant details and comparison and contrast. ♦ It uses words that appeal to the imagination - action verbs, adjectives that describe size, shape and colour; adverbs that describe actions. ♦ It orders the details - a spatial arrangement for a moving or stationary description 33 Example I gazed into the classroom and saw the most forlorn and deserted place I had ever seen. It was a long room with three long rows of rickety desks and benches. Torn, old textbooks and exercise books littered the dirt floor. Some were scattered on the desks. Two miserable white mice left behind by their owners were running up and down in a musty castle made of cardboard and wire. On dark brown walls that were once blue, hung dog-eared teaching aids, many of which were covered with cobweb. To complete the picture the eastern window hung on a single hasp- and-staple like a drunkard. Narrative Paragraph This type of paragraph tells a story or incident. It is written in a logical sequence, progressing from beginning through middle to the end and follows a time sequence. Example Suddenly a door slammed upstairs and we jumped in alarm. We now spoke as though someone were listening to us. We decided to investigate. When we were halfway upstairs, there was a sudden swishing sound and something touched my face as it went by. I shouted and Timothy gripped my arm. We shone our torches upwards. It was an owl that had resented our intervention. As we gazed at it with a mixture of surprise and relief, we saw the open window and realized that the wind had caused the door to slam. The Expository Paragraph This is sometimes referred to as the explanatory paragraph because the objective of such a paragraph is to explain. For example, such a paragraph is used to explain how to fix, grow or make something. It can also explain why something happened, and give information on size and location. 34 Expository paragraphs are usually developed by the use of facts or reasons. The order in which details are set out depends on the type of explanation involved. ♦ If the aim is to give information, the facts may be stated in any order, as long as they are clear. ♦ If it is about an event, a chronological or time order should be used. ♦ If the paragraph simply sets out to list facts, this may be done beginning with the most important to the least important. ♦ When explaining how to make or do something, a chronological order is the best approach. Example Dental care for a baby really begins during the mother’s pregnancy. A balanced diet including adequate amounts of milk, fish and greens is mandatory for her. The infant’s first visit to the dentist should take place between six and twelve months after birth so that he can discover, intercept and change any practice adopted by the parents or guardians that may be detrimental to the baby’s oral health. Ways in which a paragraph can be developed After the student would have determined the subject, the purpose and the audience, they must determine how to develop the paragraphs in the essay. The mode of development is determined by the subject, purpose and audience. Modes of development ♦ Description ♦ Analysis ♦ Classification ♦ Definition ♦ Comparison ♦ Contrast 35 ♦ Exemplification ♦ Narration ♦ Process ♦ Cause and Effect A mode is a way or manner of developing ideas. The term is used to refer to both the process and arrangement of the ideas. Categories such as analysis, classification and the others refer to mental processes (thought patterns) and processes of arrangement; also represent methods of developing paragraphs. They appear in paragraphs because our minds think along those lines. Examples of the modes in paragraphs Analysis Organises paragraphs by dividing a complex subject into its component parts. The supporting sentences divide the term “Patriotism’, which is introduced in the topic sentence, into its elements. Patriotism is a very complex feeling, built up out of primitive instincts and highly intellectual convictions. 1. There is love of home and family and friends, making us particularly anxious to preserve our own country from invasion. 2.There is the mild instinctive liking for compatriots as against foreigners. 3.There is pride, which is bound up with the success of the community to which we feel that we belong. 4.There is a belief, that one’s own nation represents a great tradition and stands for ideals that are important to the human race. 5.But besides all these, there is another element, an element of worship, of willing sacrifice, of joyful merging of the individual life in the life of the nation. This religious element in patriotism is essential to the strength of the State, since it enlists the best that is in most men on the side of national sacrifice. Bertrand Russell, Why Men Fight 36 Description The paragraphs consist basically of sentences representing objects arranged in space. The principle of organization is based on the way the objects are perceived in space. The scene is easier to follow if a particular spatial arrangement is used. ♦ Left to right ♦ Bottom to top ♦ Right to left ♦ Top to bottom As you enter the forest, it seems dark and shadowy, and as cool as a cucumber. The light is filtered through a million leaves, and so have a green aquarium-like quality which make everything seem unreal. The centuries of dead leaves that have fluttered to the ground have provided a rich layer of mold, soft as any carpet, and giving off a pleasant earthly smell. On every side are the huge trees with their curling buttress roots, their smooth trunks towering hundreds of feet above, their head foliage and branches merging indistinguishably into the endless green roof of the forest. Between these the floor of the forest is covered with the young trees, thin tender growths just shaken free of the cradle of leaf mold, long thin stalks with a handful of pale green leaves on top. They stood in the everlasting shade of their parents ready for the great effort of shooting up to the life-giving sun. In between their thin trunks, rambling across the floor of the forest, one can see faint paths twisting and turning. These are the roads of the bush and are followed by all its inhabitants. Gerald Durrell, The Overloaded Ark Classification Classification deals with systems of classes. Begin classification paragraphs with a general statement and support this statement by an explanation of the types or subtypes: 37 Meteorites are of three general classes: irons – composed 98 percent or more of nickel-iron; stony irons – composed roughly half and half of nickel-iron and of a kind of rock known as olivine: and, finally stones. The stones are further subdivided, depending on whether they contain tiny bodies of the materials olivine and pyroxene. The stones that possess them, are called chondrites. The few stones that lack these minerals are known as achondrites. All these categories offer useful clues to those who try to reconstruct the history of the earth. Time-Life Books, The Earth Exemplification These paragraphs use supporting examples to illustrate a generalisation. The paragraph begins with a general which is then supported by specific examples. Almost no feature of the interior design of our current cars provides safeguards against injury in the event of a collision. Doors that fly open on impact, inadequately secured seats, the sharp edged rearview mirror, pointed knobs on instrumental panels and boors, flying glass, the overhead structure-all illustrate the lethal potential of poor design. A sudden deceleration turns a collapsed steering wheel or a sharp-edged dashboard into a bone-and-chest crushing agent. Penetration of the shatterproof windshield can chisel one’s head into fractions. A flying seat cushion can cause a fatal injury. The apparently harmless glove-compartment door has been to unlatch under impact and guillotine a child. Roof-supporting structure has deteriorated to a point where it provides scarcely more protection to the occupants, in common roll-over accidents, than an open convertible. Ralph Nader, “The Safe Car you Can’t Buy”, the Nation (April 11,1957). Definition This kind of paragraph tells what a thing is. It also explains what words or phrases mean. Lead off with a general statement or with a logical definition, then expand the general statement by other methods of defining. 38 “Desert” is an unfortunate word all around and most of its usual associations are inaccurate as well as unfavourable. In the first place the word doesn’t even mean “dry,” but simply uninhabited or deserted. In that sense, the expanse around me is far from being a desert, for it is teeming with live things very glad indeed to be right there. Even in its secondary meaning, “desert” suggests to most people the rolling sand dunes of the Sahara. Something like that one way find in Death Valley, perhaps in parts of the Mojave; and especially, with an added weirdness, in the hundreds of square miles of New Mexico’s White Sands, where the great dunes of glistening gypsum drift like the snow banks one can hardly believe they are not. Most of my Lower Sonoran Desert, however, is not at all like that. The sandy soil is firm and hard packed; it supports life, less crowded than in wetter regions but pleasantly flourishing. Nature does not frown here. She smiles invitingly. Joseph Wood Krutch, The Desert Year Comparison and Contrast The comparison and contrast paragraphs deal with similarities and differences. It is organized in the following way: ♦ The first half deals with one subject or aspect of the subject ♦ The second half takes up the second subject or aspect of the subject to be compared The way of the desert and the way of the jungle represent the two opposite methods of reaching stability at two extremes of density. In the jungle there is plenty of everything life needs except more space, and it is not for the way of anything else that individuals or that races have any limit set to their proliferation. Everything is on top of everything else; there is no cranny which is not both occupied and disputed. At every moment, war to the death rages fiercely. The place left vacant by any creature that dies is seized almost instantly by another, and life seems to suffer from nothing except too favourable an environment. In the desert, on the other hand, it is the environment itself which serves as the limited factor. To some extent the struggle of creature against creature is mitigated, though it is of course not abolished even in the vegetable kingdom. For the plant which in one place would be strangled to death by its neighbour dies a thirsty seedling in the desert because that same neighbour has drawn the scant moisture from the spot of earth out of which it was attempting to spring. Joseph Wood Krutch, The Desert Year 39 Narration The emphasis is usually on the action, on the connected series of events that take place in chronological order. Narrative paragraphs seldom use the topic sentence; they begin with a sentence that gets the action started, then sentences are added to advance the action. Description is often included in order to present the action in the most vivid terms. Slowly the minutes ticked away towards the zero hour. Officers their watches synchronized, waiting with guns in the air, ready to fire the shots that signaled the opening. At last the revolvers barked, and along the line pandemonium broke loose. Men whipped up their horses, wagons careened wildly forward, horses freed from overturned vehicles galloped madly about – all was hurrah and excitement. The Santa Fe trains, streaming slowly at a regulated pace which would not give their passengers an undue advantage, disgorged riders along the route as men leaped from roofs or platforms and rushed about in search of a claim. Noise and confusion reigned as the shouts of successful “Boomers,” the crash of hammers on stakes, the clatter of wagons, the crash of overturned vehicles, and the curses of disappointed homeseekers mingled to create a bedlam unique in the annals of the nation. Ray Allen Billington, Westward Expansion Cause and Effect Compose cause and effect paragraphs by moving from cause to effect or from effect to cause. The assumption is that an event takes place in time because an initial event caused it to occur or because it is part of a causal chain. Introductory Paragraphs These paragraphs should lead into the subject, and arouse the curiosity and interest of the reader and create the correct tone. In considering strategies to begin, it could be helpful to answer these questions 1. Who are my readers? 2. Do they have any knowledge of my subject? 40 3. Do they have any interest in my subject? 4. How can I best gain their attention? 5. Is my purpose: ♦ To present them with new information? ♦ To persuade them to take a certain course of action? ♦ To entertain? 6. How can I best convey to my readers my own interest in and attitude toward my subject? Ways to Begin: ♦ Descriptive Details The poster mirrored what the nightmare might be, that terrifying day when the street gangs take over the city, any city. Some of them wore leather vests over bare chests. Others had on Arab headdresses. A few their faces painted harlequin colours… ♦ An Anecdote Nearly five years ago I sat in the courtyard of a household in the village I call Tudu, Niger, haranguing the head of the household in an attempt to determine the year his first son was older or younger than other men whose ages I knew very well… ♦ A Quotation “We cannot tolerate the Cubans to go swashbuckling unchecked in Africa, the Middle East and other areas, nor can we tolerate the Cubans of the Orient to go swashbuckling in Laos, Kampuchea or even in the Chinese border areas. Now some people in the world are afraid of offending them, even if they do something terrible. These people wouldn’t dare take action against them.” So said China’s Vice Premier Teng Hsiao-p’ing last week… 41 ♦ A Question Is it possible that a cigar-shaped spaceship descended over the tiny town of Aurora, and crashed into Judge J. S. Proctor’s windmill? ♦ A Figure of Speech Like fast-approaching storm clouds, the consequences of the political turmoil that shut down Iran’s became clearer last week. ♦ An Analogy From Florida to Maine there is war. Between man and man, fish and bird, wave and sand. The battle rages and storms over the coast. Yet the battlefield is strangely quiet. Grasses bend softly in the wind. Herons stalk silently through shallow waters. This war is being fought in the narrow green- and-tawny band of salt marsh that stretches along our eastern shore. Concluding Paragraphs The concluding paragraph should conclude. If the essay in short it could be ended with the most important points. If the essay is relatively long, the main points made in the body can be repeated. If the ideas are difficult they can be summarized in the concluding paragraph. The reader must leave with the feeling that the essay is completed. Ways to Conclude 1. End with the most important point of your essay. 2. Repeat the main points of your essay. 3. Present your reader with a summary of your main ideas. 4. Conclude with a question. 5. End with a question. 6. Conclude with a prediction or forecast. 7. Give your reader an opinion, based on your previous discussion. 8. Discuss the broader implications of your subject. 42 9. End with an anecdote. 10. Conclude with a striking example. Exercises ♦ Let students examine introductory paragraphs and discuss the following. - What method is used to begin each paragraph - In what way they arouse interest - How do they lead into the body of the essay ♦ Have them bring to class three closing paragraphs from current magazines. They will discuss the techniques used in the paragraphs. ♦ Students can write three introductory paragraphs, using one of the techniques given. ♦ Ask students to bring articles, reports or written papers from medical reports, so that they can examine and discuss the mode of development ♦ Let students bring an essay that uses paradigmatic structure (comparison, classification etc.) and write an essay of their own using the same structure Achieving Coherence The best way to achieve coherence in writing is to develop consecutive thinking so that the paragraphs unfold in a logical, step-by-step manner. Coherence can be achieved by breaking the writing into logical units, but sometimes there is need for connecting words and phrases to make the flow of thought smooth and effortless Transitional devices that make the relationship among the parts clear Addition and, too, also, again, and then, moreover, further, indeed, in addition, plus, likewise, besides, together, jointly. Example: This is a wine to enjoy with your dinner. You will also enjoy its delicious flavour with fruit, cheese, and desert after dinner is over. 43 First, second, third, next, again, last, primarily, secondarily, in Series the first place, in the second place, additionally, first and foremost, the former, the later. Example: First we let blueberry pie dry on a dessert dish overnight. Then we washed it with Electrasol. Pronoun this, that, these, those, he, she, it, you, they, we, such, some, Reference many, none. Example: Welcome to Hawaii. It is a place as unique and varied as its flowers. Repeated moisture/moistness/moisten/moist, told/tell, arrived/arrival, Word rare/rarity, depth/deep, mix/mixture/admixture/mixed. Example: He arrived early. His arrival filled us with dread. car/automobile, spectator/onlooker/observer/viewer, mere Synonyms words/nonsense, purchase/buy, join/unite/connect, exterior/outside Example: One of the hottest topics in public education today is “back to the basics.” PTA meetings resound with debates on the subject. Whole-Part television/picture tube, stereo/turner, water/wave, flower/petal, book/chapter/section/paragraph, landscape/meadow. Example: The roof on this house is made of a new kind of nonwood shingle. The edges are thick and irregular obviously, certainly, perhaps, surely, naturally, really, to be Emphasis sure, in truth, very likely, undoubtedly, assuredly, without fail. Example: Add fresh taste and variety to your salad with country-fresh mushroom. They’re full of flavour and surprisingly low in calories. 44 equally important, similarly, in the same way, also, equally, Comparison comparably, corresponding, like Example: Animal life on the desert is like life anywhere else. It is completely dependent on plant life for sustenance but, yet, however, still, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the Contrast other hand, in spite of, conversely, although, unlike, be that as it may. Example: Taking care of wood is a constant job. Unlike wood, vinyl siding takes care of itself. consequently, therefore, thus, as a result, for this reason, on Result this account it follows that, accordingly, hence, so, necessarily. Example: The colour of the roof is muted. So it blends in naturally with the architecture and the surroundings. Example for instance, for example, namely, that is, thus Example: The new cars are quieter than last year’s models. You will be surprised, for example, by the almost complete absence of road noise and body vibrations. Here, there, above, under, near by, beyond, on the other side, Place opposite, adjacent to, in. Example: Spend your vacation in British Columbia. Your American dollar’s worth much more there. Exercise ♦ Analysing paragraphs 45 - Students can state the methods used to achieve coherence - They can mark each paragraph in detail to illustrate the use of transitional devices. - Then they can discuss what they observed within the paragraphs and between the paragraphs ♦ Rewriting paragraphs, enhancing them by including appropriate transitional devices. ♦ Writing their own essays using the necessary transitional devices to achieve coherence. 46 NARRATIVE WRITING Much has already been said about Narrative Writing in Level 7 and Level 8 Teacher’s Guide. This guide will therefore build on what has already been said in the two previous guides. Purpose of Narrative Writing The main purpose of a narrative is to engage in an imaginative experience. However, some others may seek to explain a phenomenon (myth, and legends) or to teach a lesson (fables). Organization of Narratives ♦ Narratives usually include an Orientation in which the setting, time, main character, and possibly some minor characters of the story are established. Here the mood is set, and the reader is invited to continue reading. ♦ An event or series of Events involving the main character unfold and lead to a Complication in which the character is involved in some conflict. There are often minor conflicts that serve to frustrate or hamper the main character from reaching an ambition or wish. These conflicts serve to build tension and hold the reader’s interest as they lead to a high point or climax. ♦ The Resolution Language Features • Specific, often individual, participants with defined identities Major participants are human, or sometimes animals with human characteristics 47 • Mainly action verbs are used, but also many verbs that refer to what the human participants said, or felt, or thought • Simple past tense • Transitional devices of time • Dialogue often included, during which the tense may change to the present or future • Descriptive language chosen to enhance and develop the story by creating images in the reader’s mind • Can be written in the first person (I, we) or the third person (he, she, they). (Adapted from Derewianka, 1990, Exploring How Texts Work, p. 42) NARRATIVE • Orientation - Who, When, Where • Events which lead to a complication or problem - Includes details which will enhance the later development of the story - Complication involves main characters/mirrors complications of life - There are also minor complications • Complications are resolved in a satisfying manner. 48 Narrative Framework The First Boomerang Orientation One day, many years ago, there lived a carpenter named Past tense Adam. He was well respected by all the people and was noted for his ability to carve. For many years he carved creatures from the wood of trees. As he sat in the warm sunshine, a sleepy snake slithered Descriptive by. Adam decided to carve a snake. Slowly he got up to language to find a piece of wood. When he was satisfied with his create images selection he began to whittle away with his best blade. The wood was hard and the carving slow. His head nodded and he fell asleep. Complication When he awoke the snake he had carved looked quite Linking strange. It seemed bent in the middle and thin at both words to do with time ends. Adam bent down and picked up the carved wood. He threw it as far as he could – it was of no use. He would start again. The snake spun through the air. Adam peered as it spun Variation in sentence around, turned in the air and came skipping across the length to sandy ground at his feet. He threw it again as hard as he provide change of could. Back came the snake. Adam’s face began to split. mood and He smiled. He laughed. Tears ran down his cheeks. He pace threw his wonderful snake again and again. Resolution Adam had made the first boomerang. 49 This simple story can help you to introduce and analyse the structure of a narrative. Activities to teach Narrative Writing Graphic Organisers 1. Get your pupils to use a planning framework to make a story outline or draw events in a story. 1. Narrative Plan HEADINGS NOTES Title Orientation Initiating Event Complication Resolution Moral/Concluding Statement 50 2. Narrative Plan Title: Orientation: Setting: Who? When? What? Why? _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ Initiating Event: What began the event? How did the characters get involved? _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ Complication/s: How conflict/s or problem/s began _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ Resolution: How the character/s solve the conflict/s problem/s _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ 51 3. Narrative Writing - STORY BOARD –-To Sketch Story Ideas Beginning Problem Events Complications Ending Time Relationships in Narrative Stories can be difficult to follow if the writer fails to understand and manage time relationships. Past, Present and Future See time as a line Past Future Present Moment Any part of time which includes present time is indicated by the use of present tense verbs, the past time by using past time verbs. Future time can be marked in one of these ways. 1. He swims in the 400 metre relay tomorrow. 52 2. He will swim in the freestyle leg. 3. He is swimming at three pm. 4. He is going to swim the race of his life. Keeping the Time Reference Constant One problem in writing is keeping the time line constant. In narrative writing the writer is talking about events in the past, so the writing is in the past tense. The narrative tells about some point in time in the past told by someone located in the present time. Past POINT OF STORY PRESENT Future Events of story Story teller If there are events that happened before or after the point of the story the verb form would need to change. Referring to the past in the past Past 1 st 2 nd STORY TELLER Future John John met is Jane lonely John had been lonely and miserable until the day he met Jane To Refer to the Future in the Past Past 1 st 2 nd STORY TELLER Future I saw him y We said He said goodb again goodbye, but little did I know that I was to see him again soon. 53 Strategy Time relationships can be introduced to the class in a comprehension lesson with a passage such as this. Passage Smokey Joe was quietly sipping his bourbon in the salon, where Belle had been singing her new number. If Jesse were here, he thought, he would have enjoyed hearing that. He should have been here by now. Curly had arrived, and he would have had a long tedious wait if he had not whiled away the time talking to Belle. Curly loved Belle. She had loved him, too. He would spend hours gazing at her across the saloon. Jake would be along later. He was the boss, and he had the plans for the bank. The whole gang was to meet sundown. When they were all together they would ride off into the sunset. Questions 1. Which of the gang were already at the saloon? 2. Which of the gang had not yet arrived? 3. Whom was Smokey Joe expecting next? 4. Had Joe finished his bourbon? 5. Was Belle singing? 6. What was Curly doing? 7. Does Curly love Belle? Does Belle love Curly? 8. When did Curly gaze at Belle across the saloon? 9. What can you tell about the time of day when Joe was sipping his bourbon? 10. What will happen when the gang meets? 54 EXPOSITORY WRITING Persuasive Writing As future leaders, students must be able to influence others by communicating with them convincingly. Knowledge of persuasive writing will help them to do this. A writer uses the persuasive writing form when attempting to convince a reader to believe in something or perform a specific task. When you write to convince someone that a certain opinion you hold is right, you present facts and reasons in support of your opinion, a more sinister connotation. Persuasive writing aims at convincing the reader through emotional appeal more than valid reasons. It is supported by evidence and relies upon persuasive devices to make its appeal. Therefore, the choice of language should be guided by this. Students should be taught persuasive writing as it helps them to think clearly and arrange ideas logically. They also develop communication skills, which can be used effectively in debates. Persuasive writing can also help students develop research skills. When preparing arguments for a debate, for example, students will have to do research so as to gather facts to support whatever position is taken. Knowledge of persuasive writing can further help students to distinguish fact from opinion and to identify propaganda in advertisements. Since persuasive language is used in advertisements, they need to be aware of its purpose and not be caught into responding positively against their own reasoning. 55 Ways of Persuading There are basically three tactics that can be used when persuading (Tompkins 1990). The passages that follow illustrate these tactics. Passage No 1 Questions 1. What was special about Sladden Wood? 2. What was special about Aston Keynes Long Meadow? 3. What happened to each of these important places? 4. What exactly is the point Brian Jackson is making? This is a clear example of an argument which depends for its effect on the evidence which the writer cites Passage No. 2 Man has come to dominate the earth and to prosper by his cleverness. With the tools and technological knowledge now at his command, he not only tinkers with his environment to 56 make it more comfortable – he rapes it. We continue, nevertheless, to use brute force to make natural resources yield up what we want – now – from them. Danger signals blink urgently on all sides. Our survival really is in the balance. Racheal Carson Silent Spring 1963 Questions 1. Summarise in one sentence the argument which is being made here? 2. Is there any evidence of the kind which Brian Jackman cites in this passage? 3. What is the force of the verse ‘tinker’ and ‘rape’? 4. Why does the writer enclose the word ‘now’ in dashes? 5. What is the effect of the two short, crisp sentences which end the passage? Rachel Carson does not depend on precise evidence, this is an example of persuasion through the force of words. The words that were used and the actual structure of the sentences – their shortness and abruptness - communicate to the reader the writer’s sense of the danger which mankind faces. Passage No. 3 The train bore me away, through the monstrous scenery of slag-heaps, chimneys, piled scrap-iron, foul canals, paths of cindery mud criss-crossed by the prints of clogs. This was March, but the weather had been horribly cold and everywhere there were mounds of blackened snow. As we moved slowly through the outskirts of the town we passed row after row of little grey slum houses running at right angles to the embankment. At the back of one of the houses a young woman was kneeling on the stones, poking a stick up the leading pipe which ran from the sink inside which I supposed was blocked. I had time to see everything about her – her sacking apron, her clumsy clogs, her arms reddened by the cold. She looked up as the train passed, and I was almost near enough to catch her eye. She had a round pale face, the usual exhausted face of the slum girl who is twenty- five and looks forty, thanks to miscarriages and drudgery; and it wore, for the second in which I saw it, the most desolate, hopeless expression I have ever seen. It struck me then that we are mistaken when we say that ’It isn’t the same for them as it would be for us,’ and that people breed in the slums can imagine nothing but the slums. For what I 57 saw in her face was not the ignorant suffering of an animal. She knew well enough what was happening to her – understood as well as I did how dreadful a destiny it was to be kneeling there in the bitter cold, on the slimy stones of a slum backyard, poking a stick up a foul drain pipe. George Orwell The Road to Wigam Pier 1937 Questions 1. What kind of landscape is described in the first three sentences? 2. Why does George Orwell set the scene in this way before introducing the young woman? 3. In your own words describe this woman’s appearance. 4. This is not an argument for a specific course of action but there is no doubt that Orwell wants his readers to react in a particular way to what he describes. What reaction do you think he wants to inspire? The tactic here is neither to quote precise evidence nor to state the argument in a forceful and persuasive fashion. Orwell leaves the details to speak for themselves and the reader to draw his or her own conclusions. The Argument The passages above exemplified tactics which can be used to persuade the readers. However, there are other tactics that can be used. 1. The first appeal a writer can make is based on “Reason”. People seek to make logical generalizations and draw cause-and- effect conclusions. For example, people can be persuaded to practice more healthful living if told about the results of medical research. 2. Another way to persuade is through an ‘Appeal to character’. We can be persuaded by what another person recommends if we trust that person. 58 3. The third way to persuade someone is an appeal to the person’s “Emotions”. Emotional appeals can be strong as intellectual appeals, because people have a strong concern for their well-being and the rights of others. We support or reject arguments according to our strong feelings about what is ethical and socially acceptable. The object of any argument is to find out the truth or to determine what is best, not to have a conflict in which one may vanquish another. The aim of any argument is to convince others that your point of view is the correct one. Since arguments are written in order to express a point of view about an issue, the following steps should be taken into consideration. 1. Before writing one must be clear about one’s feelings on the topic. - One may feel that the statement is acceptable as it is. - One may feel that the statement is only partly acceptable. For example, let us examine the following The law is stupid. You can vote at eighteen, drive a car at eighteen, but marry with your parents consent at sixteen and have a child; Yet still cannot drink legally or go to an adult movie. I think something should be done about this ridiculous state of affairs. I vote that we reduce the age of voting, driving and drinking to sixteen. Step 1 In order to help students make up their minds, you can get them to explore the topic from different viewpoints. For example, they may take the following viewpoints. 59 1. The law is to be changed, and young people will have to be eighteen before they can drive. The following questions can then be asked (i) Why might the law be changed? (ii) Do you think it is a good idea? (iii) In some countries you can drive at the age of fifteen. How do you feel about it? 2. Do you think people are old enough to get married at sixteen? If so should they be able to vote and drink alcohol? 3. At one time only married women could vote. Could a law be introduced where married women under the age of eighteen are able to vote? Why? Why not? Step 2 When they have decided on their point of view get them to prove their argument. In order to do this they must state their case and write down what led them to this decision. In writing an argument, the writer’s viewpoint must be clearly stated. This is the most important part of the essay. The rest of it supports why the writer holds that opinion. The student must therefore Have a plan and follow a logical structure Ensure that the viewpoint does not change, unless they have clearly stated that they are reasons for being unsure and are trying to present both points of view Exclude all personal and sarcastic remarks 60 Learning Activities in Conducting Arguments (a) Discuss with your students the guidelines for conducting arguments. Explain the values to be gained by following them. Give examples from your own experience in which these guidelines were or were not followed. (b) Allow students to listen to a taped discussion. Then in a class discussion get the students to judge the ability and methods of the speakers. (c) Get students to meet in small groups and argue on topics. Allow them to choose their own topics. In the beginning have the students give arguments for both sides. (d) With a student or teacher as judge conduct a class argument on one or more topics. Let the students stand or speak from their seats. Get someone to record the points on the blackboard as they are made. Put them in two columns: FOR - AGAINST. When Writing the Argument 1. Get all the information that you can find to support your point of view. 2. Organize your facts in an outline. The outline should have an introduction, a body and a summary. (a) The introduction should state clearly and exactly the subject of the argument and should explain all terms. (b) The body should give facts to support your point of view. Avoid any discussion of ideas that do not apply directly to the subject. (c) The summary should state your conclusion. 3. Make the presentation clear, logical and convincing. 61 Activities to help Students Write Arguments 1. Let the students come up with a list of debatable topics. Choose topics in which there is most interest. Divide the class into two equal sides. Make an outline then write out the argument. Have an imitation radio broadcast letting the participants from each side take turns reading their written arguments. 2. Get students to write letters or argument to a newspaper either supporting or opposing a project that is in the news. 3. Present students with a point of view e.g. a letter to the editor (a) Get students to read the article, and then let them give the opposing point of view (b) Help them by getting them to respond to the following question. Do you think this is true? 4. Give them something(s) to comment on e.g. examples of issues raised which you believe have been dealt with effectively. It should not be difficult for you, the teacher, to find topics for persuasive writing since persuasion is a part of everyday life. At home, for example, children try to persuade parents to try new clothes, to go to bed early or maybe to join a particular club. At school, children try to persuade teachers to give less homework. Therefore, let them write out of their experiences. Content area topics can also be used for persuasive writing. For example, in Environment Education students can use persuasive writing to try to stop pollution of the environment. 62 Types of Persuasive Writing A The Persuasive Essay Students write persuasive essays in which they argue on topics they have strong beliefs about. In a persuasive essay, the argument must be organized. It must have ♦ A beginning, ♦ A middle ♦ An end. In the beginning, the writer must state his/her position or opinion clearly. In the body of the essay the opinion is developed. At this point, the writer can select and present three or more reasons or pieces of evidence to support his/her position. The reasons may appeal to ♦ Logic, ♦ Character ♦ Evidence. They can use transitional words between paragraphs to alert the reader to the development of the argument. Each point is developed in a separate paragraph. It is quite effective to present reasons in order of importance. Some writers begin with the least important reason while others begin with the most important. In the end, the writer may lead readers to draw conclusions that they intend, by using one or more of these techniques: ♦ Giving a personal statement ♦ Making a prediction ♦ Summarizing the major points. 63 It must be noted that a persuasive argument is most effective when based on sound logical reasoning and the writer’s commitment to the position he/she holds. How to Teach Students to Write Persuasively Students should be introduced to persuasive writing through a series of mini lessons in which they investigate persuasive techniques. They will then apply what they have learnt to write persuasive letters and essays. Tompkins (1990) has outlined the following steps in the teaching of persuasive writing. 1. Examine how persuasion is used in everyday life. Talk with students about the points of view and positions people take on various issues. 2. Identify the topic and develop a list of reasons to support the position. 3. Write the rough draft. 4. Revise and edit the essay. Before meeting in a writing group students may first revise their own papers, reviewing to make sure they have developed the beginning, middle and end of their essays. 5. Share the writing. Compositions may be shared by being read aloud or displayed on posters or on a bulletin board. 64 Graphic Organisers for Persuasive Writing Fig 1 POSITION STATEMENT Reason - Explanation Reason - Explanation Reason - Explanation Reason - Explanation Reason - Explanation Conclusion 65 Fig 2 Beginning POSITION STATEMENT Reasons Middle Reasons Conclusion 66 B. The Persuasive Letter Another type of persuasive writing is the persuasive letter. Students can write to different audiences. For example, they can write to editors of newspapers, to family members or to friends. In a persuasive letter, the writer can appeal to reason, character and emotion. He/she can also use his/her appeal. C. Advertisements Advertisements use appeal to reason, character and emotions just as in other types of persuasive writing. This is done so as to promote products, ideas and services. Advertisers may however use propaganda in an attempt to influence the beliefs and actions of the audience. The aim of advertising is to persuade. The most effective means of communication is used to persuade consumers. In advertisements, the advertiser appeals to man’s basic desires by using different techniques. Some of these techniques are: repetition scientific and technical terms alliteration and assonance exaggeration exclamations and questions analogy contrast rhetorical question Students can be asked to bring advertisements from magazines and newspapers, and examine them in order to identify the technique that was used to persuade. 67 68 LETTER WRITING When students write letters they should Format the letter correctly Plan what they want to say in the letter Use a suitable tone. Make sure that the words they use and the way they use them are suitable for the occasion Use the best possible presentation for their letter Format of a Formal Letter 41 Republic Drive Beterverwagting, Your address East Coast Demerara 12th May, 2001 Mr. Nerhu The name Proprietor and address Nerhu Establishment of the person you are Corriverton writing The greeting Dear Mr. Nerhu: I am writing to enquire… Introduction Reasons for writing Body of letter Yours sincerely Ending Chandra Singh 69 Punctuating a Business Letter 1. The Heading This contains the complete address of the writer and the date. ♦ Abbreviations should not be used in headings. ♦ A comma should always follow the name of the city or village. ♦ Another comma should separate the day of the month from the year. ♦ No other punctuation marks should appear in the heading. 2. The Inside Address This consists of the complete name and address of the person to whom the sender is writing. Social of friendly letters do not use the inside address. 3. The Salutation In a business letter the salutation is followed by a colon: in a friendly letter by a comma. The first word of the salutation and all nouns in it are capitalized. 4. The Body This is made up of what you have to say to the receiver. It should be written in paragraphs to organise and group the ideas discussed. 5. The Complementary Close This is followed by a comma in the social letter. Only the first word should be capitalized 6. The signature There is no punctuation following it. 70 ♦ A letter to a person whom one does not know very well should be signed with one’s full name. ♦ Letters to friends and relatives should be signed with the name by which they call the writer. ♦ In signing a business letter one’s legal name should be used. Letter of Application A letter to a potential employer should make a good impression. Applications can be written for part-time or full-time jobs. Your letter will be judged by ♦ What you say ♦ How you say it ♦ Whether or not you have used the correct letter format. ♦ Whether or not you have followed all the rules of grammar, spelling, punctuation, and neatness. Each paragraph in the application performs a specific function. Paragraph 1 Identify the purpose of the letter and the specific job for which application is being made. Paragraphs 2, 3 Calls attention to the writers qualifications, highlighting areas that are pertinent to the specific job Calls attention to the fact that enclosed with the application (cover letter) is a resume and any other supplementary information. Paragraph 4 Expresses enthusiasm for the job and a desire to be granted an interview. 71 ♦ The writer says he/she will make a follow up call instead of saying, ‘I will look forward to hearing from you. ♦ Letters of application should not exceed one page f at all possible. Sample 231 Round Tree Road Ruimveldt Greater Georgetown 2003-12-21 Permanent Secretary Ministry of Health Brickdam Georgetown Dear Sir/Madam: I an writing to apply for the position of receptionist at the Open Doors Centre as advertised in the Sunday Stabroek Newspaper of 14 th of December 2003. Il graduate from St. Andrews High School in July. Over the past five years, I have completed studies which included bookkeeping, typing, shorthand, and academicsubjects. I have achieved passes in these studies. As you will note in my resume, which is enclosed, I have worked part-time in the office of Gregg Realty since leaving school in July this year. I began as a file clerk, but my duties were gradually expanded to include typing and reception. This experience has given me an opportunity to apply my school training to a business setting and to familiarize myself with the responsibilities of the office. I plan to takeevening classes in personal dynamics early next year I would very much like to meet with you to learn more about the position at Open Door Centre and to discuss my qualifications. I will call you next week to learn when it would be convenient for me to see you. Yours Sincerely Jane Chung Jane Chung 72 Résumé J ane Chung 231 Round Tree Road N orth Ruimveldt G reater Georgetown T ELEPHONE: 231-6828 DATE F BIRTH: 1986-09-14 E DUCATION - Graduated from St Andrews High School in July 2003 - Completed a three year course and attained a typing speed of 50 wpm, a shorthand speed of 120 wpm, and a working knowledge of bookkeeping. - Achieved a B+ average. - Completed a six month course in Micro-Soft Word and Excel. E XPERIENCE July 2003 to present Part-time clerk/typist Gregg Realty Duties include filing, typing and reception June to July 2003 Volunteer Reader Archer’s Home Read aloud to blind students for 2 hours, 3 afternoons a week Also fetch and return library books for sighted persons. E XTRA CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES - Member of Broad Street United Church Choir. - Book sale coordinator - Coordinator of ticket sales for the annual Christmas Concert R EFERENCES - Ms P. Wallash, Supervisor, Archer’s Home, Durban Street, 225-2859 - Mr. E. Fisher, Gregg Realty, 24 Palm Road, Kingston, 223-4576 To make a good resume, begin by writing a rough draft of the information you will include. Here are some categories to include: Person Data: Name, address, phone number, date of birth. 73 Education: Name of school, list of courses taken related directly to the job applied for, any outstanding scholastic achievement. Work Experience: Listing of any jobs you held including volunteer work. Begin with the most recent job and work back listing the name of each company, the dates of your employment, a brief description of your duties. Extracurricular Activities and Interest: This section should be brief. List any activities, talent, skill, and events participated in. This kind of information is given to show that you have a sense of responsibility, a talent for leadership, or a well- rounded personality. References: List two or three references, which you have permission to give, providing name, position, address, and phone number of each person you are suggesting. Points to Note Greetings and Endings It is important that the greeting and ending of your letter tie up as follows If you know the name of the person you are writing to, use their name to greet them. For a formal letter you should use ‘Dear’ followed by ‘Mrs/Mr/Miss’, as appropriate, then the surname. The correct ending for this greeting is ‘Yours sincerely’. If you do not know the name of the person you are writing to, you should greet them using ‘Dear Sir of Madam’. The correct ending for this greeting is ‘Yours faithfully’. 74 Planning a letter (a) When you are planning a letter, list all the points you wish to include then put them in logical order (b) Make sure that the words you choose and the way you use them are suitable for the occasion. It is important that you make the best impression in your letter. When writing Formal letters do not Use slang or dialect phrases or words Use any short forms like; you’ve or haven’t Write in a very personal way which may be inappropriate Practice Exercise Write a letter of complaint using the following information. (a) You have bought a 200 gm jar or Nescafe from Adams store in Kitty on October 19th 2001. (b) When you opened the jar, you found that most of the coffee was powder, with just a few granules in it. It smelt very bitter and was impossible to drink. The seal had not been tampered with. You are enclosing a sample for investigation. (c) You are seeking an apology and a refund at the least. Learning Activities A. Get students to place the correct form of salutation, headings and closings for letters. Example. Social Letters 1. 1017 canje peasant place south ruimveldt july 1 2001 dear joe your old friend dave 75 2. ½ mile wismar linden april 1 2001 dear joy lovingly lucy B (a) Have students model the form for the following business letters (b) Have them draw lines to separate paragraphs in the letters (c).In small groups have them exchange books and check the punctuation and capitalization in each part of the letter 1. William Brown 424 Cato Street, Agricola is writing to the manager of Mike’s Pharmacy Robb Street Georgetown 2. You are writing to the Editor of your favourite newspaper complaining about the closing of a road that was used by many residents. Business Letters A business letter communicates to a person in a formal way about a non- personal matter, such as business or politics. When writing a business letter: ♦ Type it neatly ♦ Include your own name and address. ♦ Include the recipients name and address. When reading a business letter: ♦ Pay attention to important information. ♦ Read between the lines, for companies write business letters to get ahead. 76 3675 Rossen Street North Ruimveldt Greater Georgetown March 15, 2004 The name and address of the person to whom Ms. Alison Wagner you’re writing. Include Superintendent of Schools job title if you know it. 903 North Oakdale Road, Bel Air End greeting with colon Dear Ms. Wagner; I am writing to you on behalf of the Madison School seventh grade students. We would like to tell you about our State the main idea of the World Culture Day on Saturday, May 8, from 11:00 a.m. to letter in the opening paragraph 4:00 p.m. and invite you to attend. The activities will be held in the Madison School auditorium and playground. Admission is $1; arts, crafts, and food will be available for purchase. All proceeds will be donated to the Madison School Sports Equipment Fund. Many diverse cultures will be represented on this day. Among the artistic offerings is a booth that will give lessons in origami, the Japanese art of paper folding. A demonstration of Navajo weaving will be presented at another booth. Early American quilt-making will be demonstrated. Booths will serve foods from many nations. A chili relieno dish from Mexico, a mushroom crepe dish from France, and a Cajun-style chicken dish from the Louisiana Bayou are just some of the delicious selections we are planning. Also restate the main idea The children of Madison School understand how busy you in the closing paragraph. must be with your many responsibilities as school superintendent. We do hope, however, that you can spend some time with us on World Culture Day. Sincerely yours, Tomas Ramos, President Madison Student Council 77 Friendly Letters Personal news is shared in a friendly letter. Thoughts and feelings can be discussed or just some news to keep in touch. 610 North Road Bourda Georgetown April 26, 2003 Dear Renu, End salutation with comma It was great to receive your letter. I hadn’t heard from you in so long, I am wondering if you even remember who I was! Hey, guess what: for once I actually have a lot of news. First things first. Do you remember my terrier, Body is written in Barney? Well she had puppies – four of them! Two are an informal tone, almost all brown, with little patches of black and grey. similar to the kind used in everyday There’s another one who looks a lot like Barney. And last, conversation. there’s my personal favourite: she’s mostly white, with brown speckles on her back and sides. I know it is totally corney, but I couldn’t resist calling her Spot. The other big news is that I was elected vice- president of the ninth grade. I had serious competition from Joseph Parks, and I have to admit it was a very close race. But I promised a few things to a few people, and I guess Mention of what is that made the difference. going on with the writer, and How’s everything in your new school? Mr. wanting to know Tanabe’s English class really misses you. You wrote better about the person limericks than anyone else. How about coming back for a they are writing to. visit sometime soon? I can’t keep your seat in the lunch room reserved forever. Your friend Rick 78 Envelopes and Folding Envelopes for friendly letters may vary in size, but for business letters the correct size is 24.0 cm × 10.5 cm (9½” ×4⅛”). Envelopes should always include the return address as well as the complete address of the recipient Jane Chung 231 Round Tree Road Gu y ana North Ruimveldt Greater Goergetown. $6 The Permanent Secretary Ministry of health Brickdam Goergetown Sender’s address Minimum 3.5 cm Recipients name Stamp space and address; start a little above and to the left of centre. A friendly letter is folded in half, and written on personal stationary 79 A business is folded in thirds, and written on a letter size paper. (8½”×11”) 80 REPORT WRITING The Simple Report The aim of the simple report is to record information objectively. As a result the report must be based on factual information and all opinions, preferences and judgments must be excluded. However, in some reports recommendations and conclusions based on evidence may be included. The Simple Report must 1. (a) Always begin with the subject. That is, what the report is about. It is not necessary to state the subject in a complete sentence. Example: Fourth Form student injured during recess The subject must be underlined. (b) The first paragraph of the report is the introduction. This part of the report must restate in a complete sentence what the subject said, and answer the question what happened. Example: During the recess period a fourth form student was injured. 2. After the introduction there must be an explanation of the incident or happening being reported. In this explanation, the question how did it happen must be answered. 3. The report must state the consequence and action taken as a result. If necessary it should include recommendations. 4. Every report must be written in formal language. It can be in the form of a letter however, it must include a title. If a letter is not required the heading will start the report. 81 Example of a Simple Report Letter Alleyne’s High Regent Street Georgetown 1st September 2001 The Headmistress St Georges High North Road Georgetown Dear Madam Re: Accident to John Joe in Form Four classroom I wish to report John Joe, a student of Form Four, got his leg broken in an accident yesterday. The incident occurred during the intermission at 10:30 am while the students of Form Four were about to go for their break. It occurred as John Joe attempted to exit the building by sliding down the rail on the step. Someone pushed him, and he fell and broke his leg. The Head Prefect intervened and John Joe was taken to the Accident and Emergency Unit of the Georgetown Hospital. His leg was put in a cast, and he was sent home. The Head Prefect is investigating the incident. Yours respectfully Ann John (Prefect) Points to note when writing the Simple Report • Your report must be carefully and logically arranged. • The information must be clearly expressed. • All unnecessary words, expressions and irrelevant details must be excluded. You must be precise and concise. 82 • Use your own words as far as possible. However, it is sometimes necessary to retain key words and phrases where necessary. • You must always use formal language. Direct speech must also be avoided. • Do not give reasons unless asked. If asked give only those that are presented in the material. Steps in teaching Report Writing 1. Give students a passage and let them read to find out what it is all about. 2. Have them read paragraph after paragraph, picking out all the points they think are important. 3. Let them write the points they have identified in their own words. 4. Have them arrange their points in some order. 5. Have them write their reports from the points they have identified and written in their own words. 6. Let them read and reread what they have written (a) removing unnecessary words, phrases etc (b) making sure that they have not omitted any important points or included any that should not be there. Questions to be answered when writing a report 1. Does the report have a heading or title and a date? 2. Does it indicate to whom the report is addressed? 3. Does it have the name of the person who is writing the report? 4. Is the information logically arranged? 5. Is the language formal? If all the questions are answered in the affirmative then the student would have written a Simple Report. 83 Research Report A science research report explains something about science or nature that has been learned from books, articles or experiments. What to Do State the main point Develop the paper with information and examples from your research. Write in clear language The writer develops the topic of this science report by using comparison and contrast. The t itle contains a lot of useful Perceiving the World: : information, which will be developed more fully in the rep ort. Globes and Mercator maps of the world show the same place, yet the world shown is somehow different. A globe is best for some types of references, and a Mercator map is best for others. Because of this, it is important to understand how they are different. This report is organized by comparison and contrast. The reader what the writer is comparing, and why. The most accurate representation of the characteristics of Earth’s surface is a globe. A globe can be tilted to correspond to the tilt of Earth’s axis, and a globe can be made so that it will rotate. On a globe the relative sizes of the features and their locations are accurate. Using a globe, however, has many disadvantages. To begin with, a globe shows only half of Earth’s surface at a time. Globes are usually too 84 small to show much detail. On the other hand, most globes were too large and cumbersome to carry around as a ready reference. Because of a globe’s rounded shape, it is awkward to chart or follow a straight line from one place to another. Incidentally, a globe is not completely accurate because Earth is not truly round. To explain the most important differences between a globe and a Mercator map of the world, it is necessary to understand the system meridians and parallels. On a globe meridians are north-south half circles that begin at one pole and end at the other. These are used to measure longitude. Parallels are east-west lines drawn around a globe; these circles are used to measure latitude. The grid formed by meridians and parallels provides standard reference points. However when making a two-dimensional map from a three dimensional globe, a mapmaker is essentially stretching and compressing the distance between them. This spreading of the meridians and extending of the parallels would not distort sizes or distances of Here the writer features at the equator. The farther a feature is from discuses the second item in the the equator, however, the greater the distortion. Thus comparison. areas nearer the poles, such as Greenland, are shown to be much larger than they should be. Although distortion is a great disadvantage of a Mercator map, there are several important advantages. Like all maps, it is light weight foldable, and easily portable. A Mercator lets the viewer use the whole surface of the world at once. Because maps are 85 flat, charting courses and measuring distances become easier. The writer concludes by When you look at the world depicted on a restating the main point- a Mercator map, it’s important to know what you are globe and a map are different. seeing and how each serves a different purpose. This social studies report explains something about the society or other societies that has been learned from books or articles. The writer develops the topic by presenting historical information in time order. The first paragraph According to a new theory, the beginning of introduces the topic – The origin of agriculture was the result of a change in climate and the agriculture – and depletion of natural resources. relates what the report will say about These changes occurred in the Jordon Valley about it. 12,000 years ago when the climate of the mild summer months became hot and dry. The stress on the environment resulted in less available food and water because of shorter summers, shrinking lakes and scarcer game. The people in the region had always lived by hunting and by gathering foods they found growing in the wild. Now they, like the animals, were dramatically A historical account arranged affected by the scarcity of food and water. As a result they in time order. moved to areas near the Dead Sea, where food and water were more plentiful. The swelling population, however, soon made food scarce there also. Some plants, primarily legumes and grains, were actually helped by the change in climate. The life cycles of these plants end in the spring. Because of their husks, seeds for these plants survived the 86 summers, leaving them ready to germinate during the cold Specific examples wet winters. The flourishing grains become tougher, so that and physical details help the their seeds did not scatter when the plants were plucked. It reader details help was inevitable that people would learn to save some of the the reader picture and understand seeds of these wild grasses for planting, to cultivate the your subject. plants, and then to harvest these cereals. Archaeologists have discovered that a sophisticated Present research – culture formed in this area about 10,000 years ago. These archaeologists’ people lived in well-built houses in a permanent discoveries – to help back up the settlement. They had a social organisaton that allowed theory. Notice that them to control the storage and distribution of grain. They the writer gives specific examples also had the technology of flint sickles and stone mortars. to show what he means by The increased food supplies made possible by agriculture “sophisticated led to the expansion of human population and thus to the culture.” formation of cities. The historical Soon a spreading population carried the idea of developments that the writer has agriculture east and north into Mesopotamia and what is shown lead to the now modern Turkey. Both agriculture and civilization were conclusion well under way. 87 UNIT 2 COMPREHENSION The Level 9 student is expected to write a national examination and continue towards the CXC. The main purpose of reading at this level is to facilitate study in the various subject areas. The content of the texts in these subject areas has expository writing as its main feature. As teachers, we need to use classroom strategies to develop readers who can learn from a wide variety of print materials. Reading should be seen as a constructive process in that the reader has to construct meaning from print by using prior knowledge. There are various strategies that can be used to help the students comprehend the read content. Reading comprehension is supposed to be an interactive process. The interaction among four conditions determines what meaning a reader will construct from a given text. The four conditions involve the following:  What the reader brings to the reading situation (prior knowledge).  The characteristics of the written text (descriptive, expository, narrative).  The learning context that defines the task and purpose of the reader.  Background knowledge about a topic. Teachers are therefore responsible for helping students to activate their prior knowledge. At this level students should be encouraged to ‘use’ reading to gain information. Students, as they read independently, will discover which strategies work best for them and when to apply those strategies in order to read with a purpose. 88 Objectives Creative Reading Students will be able to:  associate personal experiences with what has been read.  appreciate the writer’s craft.  evaluate characters and situations. The students would have to be exposed to the reading of short stories, novels and extracts from these sources, to achieve these objectives. Functional Reading Students will be able to:  locate the required reading material by using the relevant section of a book.  use a dictionary to discover meaning of technical terms.  identify the organizational structure of the encyclopaedia and, and use the knowledge to locate material.  gain information from content areas by identifying cause and effect, problem and solution. Volume 1 Section 1 A HAPPY HOME Building a Happy Home 19 Who’s Boss in your Home 22 The real Meaning of Marriage 25 Common causes of Trouble in the Home 29 Solving your Marriage Problems 32 Section 2 WHEN BABIES COME So you’re Going to Have a Baby 35 Ladies I Waiting 38 Eating for Two 42 Caring for Yourself during Pregnancy 45 Trouble during Pregnancy 49 How Babies are Born 53 Students would be taught to locate the information they need without going through the whole book. 89 Questions like these would help the student. 1. Which section would have information about giving birth to a baby? 2. Which page would you turn to, to find out about giving birth? Such questions would help the student to understand that they must not only locate the section but also the chapter in that section which contains the needed information. They should also understand that they need to check the headlines in the chapter to determine whether the issue or topic is discussed there. Pre-reading Strategies Comprehension passages should be taken from a variety of reading material covering a wide range of topics and issues. The teacher must consider a variety of interest, appropriateness to the age level of students, ethnic and sex balance and readability level when selecting material. When presenting the reading text, the teacher needs to make the students aware of the issues they are about to read about. This approach is called ‘reading readiness’ which is accomplished through pre-reading exercises such as the following. (A) Anticipation Guide It predicts the major ideas contained in a passage. Stimuli are used to activate students’ thoughts and opinions. The Anticipation Guide involves the following steps:  Identifying major concepts (main ideas) by reviewing the text  Determining students’ prior knowledge or opinions in order to select statements  Creating statements using information that should reflect students’ prior knowledge and opinion 90  Deciding on the order of the statements and their mode of presentation, for example, whether you will use sequence in the text  Presenting the guide for students to respond to  Discussing each statement briefly; encouraging students to share opinions, giving reasons; tallying the total responses to each of them  Directing students to read the text and then letting them know that the text relates to their opinions  Conducting follow-up discussion that focuses on what students have learnt and how their opinions have changed The following is an example of the use of the Anticipation Guide Write A for Agree and D for Disagree Before After Reading Reading 1. Many people in Columbus’ time believed that the world was flat. 2. Columbus believed that if he sailed west he would finally reach east. 3. Scurvy was one of the diseases that affected sailors. 4. During the time of Columbus, ship building was developed. 5.Trade was one of the reasons for exploration 91 Why Europeans Sailed West Five centuries ago times were changing. A few learned men, of course, knew that the world was round and not flat. This had been known ever since the time of the ancient Greeks. Some very foolish things were nevertheless still believed about the distant parts of the Atlantic. Some thought that the edge of the world was somewhere beyond it and that they would fall off if they went too far out. To others, the ocean depths were the home of horrible monsters and evil spirits. There was much superstition. Those who knew that the world was round thought that if anyone was brave enough, he could sail from Europe towards the west and arrive finally at the east. The journey was a dangerous thing to attempt, for the journey might be very long and the question of preservation of food was not easy. Besides, in those days, there were little or no means of preventing diseases such as scurvy, which attacked people who went for a long time without fresh food. Two things greatly helped the new zest for exploration. One was the newly discovered mariner’s compass, which made voyages possible in distant seas and made navigators much less dependent on clear skies and familiar stars. The other was a new development in the building of ships. The new ships called carracks helped to make the opening up of uncharted seas possible. As well as the zest for exploration there was also the desire for trade. Exploration and trade always go together. In the fifteenth century the large eastern trade in spices, silk, and other precious cargoes was in the hands of Venice. 92 Carter, E.H et al (1959) History of the West Indian Peoples Bk. 111 London Thomas Nelson & sons Ltd. P.8 (B) K –W –L Strategy The K – W – L strategy is used for activating prior knowledge and determining purpose for reading expository texts. It is especially useful in the area of Science and Social Studies. The format is as follows, with a description of what each step entails. K W L What I know What I want to learn What I learned and still need to learn Select a topic specifically This is a natural sequence This step requires students related to the main ideas to what the students know to write the answers to their and key concepts of the about the topic. During the questions after reading. It material to be read. discussion students are does the following: allowed to focus on aspects - Helps to determine Brainstorm students to get of the topic that they may which questions they information on what they have given much thought to still need to answer. know about the topic. previously. Students will - Allows students to later read the entire text or think about additional Let students identify read the text in parts in questions. categories of information. order to have their - Takes students questions answered. beyond the reading of a single selection. The K – W – L strategy is a good way to initiate a thematic unit, because it motivates students to read several selections on a given topic. It provides for much interaction. It also allows the teacher to assess what the students know at each stage, and how well they have integrated their knowledge. This strategy can become an independent student strategy after students have had much experience with it. The following is an example of how the teacher may use the K – W – L strategy to introduce a passage on Juices. 93 What I have learnt and still What I know What I want to learn need to learn 1. Juices are made from 1. Who came up with 1. Cavemen squeezed fruits. the idea of making juices out of fruits. 2. Juices contain juices? 2. Juices are non-fattening vitamins. 2. How are juices and a source of vitamins 3. Drink and juices are manufactured? and glucose. not the same. 3. What are the 3. The juice of the 4. There are artificial effects of artificial watermelon contains packaged juices. juice on the body? vitamin A. 5. Juices can be 4. Vitamin C prevents preserved by freezing scurvy. and adding chemicals. 5. Because the English sailors used a lot of lime juice on long trips they were called “limeys”. 6. What are the effects of preservation on the body? The Joy of Juices Since the first cavemen squeezed the juice out of a fruit to make drink, people have been enjoying the easy refreshment of fruit juices. Juices are generally non-fattening and contain no cholesterol or other fats. They are highly nutritious as an excellent source of glucose and vitamins. Tomato, orange and guava juices contain the most vitamin C, and the juice of the watermelon is rich in vitamin A. The name “limey” which was used to refer to Englishmen originated during the early days of exploration. Sailors, who spent long periods at sea, developed scurvy, which was characterised by weakness, anaemia, loss of teeth, and other 94 fearful symptoms. It was discovered that by drinking the juice of fresh limes the disease could be cured and even prevented. It is the vitamin C in the limes that prevents scurvy. Citrus fruits are easily prepared using the standard glass or plastic squeezer. Special lime squeezers made of strong metal and which operate like a garlic press are also used. More elaborate preparation is required for such fruit as sour-sop, papaw or mango, including the use of blenders and strainers. Others such as prunes and sorrel require steeping in hot water. However it is prepared, pure juice needs refrigeration. Commercially prepared juices have preservatives added before being canned or bottled to extend their shelf life. Modern methods of processing allow the marketing of frozen, concentrated, and powdered forms of fruit juice. However, the delicate fruit flavours change in the process. Adapted from Liat Islander No. 13 (C) Analogy Graphic Organizer Analogy is an effective strategy for assisting students to form new concepts or gain new information. It helps students to link new information to familiar concepts. For example, the cells of your body may be compared with building blocks. An independent country may be compared with a young adult. The Analogy Graphic Organizer can be used to introduce a topic, to guide comprehension during reading, and to promote research skills after reading. It is used mainly to make students aware of similarities and differences between a new concept and something familiar in their lives. Students make connections by activating related experiences and background. They also gain practice in writing well-organized summaries that follow the compare/contrast text frame. 95 The following steps can be used in implementing this strategy: 1. Determine what students already know in order to establish the relationship between two concepts. 2. Brainstorm students to get them to identify specific characteristics or features common to both concepts. 3. Ask students how the two concepts are different and then place their responses in the different columns. 4. Discuss further categories for comparison. 5. Give students the opportunity to write a summary. Music Music has been compared with language. While music combines easily with actual language, it also speaks its own language regarded as universal. To understand the significance of the organizing features of rhythm, melody, harmony, tone, colour, and form, the analogy of a familiar language is helpful. Music has its own alphabet. Each of these letters represents a note, and just as certain letters are complete words in themselves, so certain notes may stand alone, with the force of a whole world. Generally, however, a note of music implies a certain harmony, and in most modern music the notes take the form of actual chords. So it may be said that a chord is similar to a word in language. Several words form a phrase, and several phrases a complete sentence, and the same thing is true of music. Measured music corresponds to poetry, while the old unmeasured plain-song might be compared with prose. Finally, the relationship of modern music to free verse at once becomes apparent. Mc Crimmon, John M. (1963) Writing With a Purpose 3rd Ed. Bouston: Houghton Miffin Co. p72 ANALOGY GRAPHIC ORGANIZER New Concept Familiar Concepts MUSIC LANGUAGE 96 Similarities Differences -Music and language are forms - Language uses intonation. of communication. Music uses melody. -They both have an alphabet. - Language has letters and sounds. Music has notes. - Some letters by themselves make complete words, and - A word represents a certain notes can stand alone meaningful unit of language, while a chord represents a meaningful unit of music. Buehl, Doug (2001) Classroom Strategies for Interactive Learning 2nd ed. Newark, D.E. International Reading association. (D) Frayer Model The Frayer Model is a graphic organizer consisting of four equal sections. This is a strategy that encourages students to go beyond the mere definition to gain a deeper understanding of concept. It helps students to differentiate between characteristics that define the concept. The student can distinguish items that represent the concept items that do not contain some of the key characteristics. The model is constructed to reflect examples and non-examples. The Frayer Model involves the following steps: 1. Analyse the concept to be presented and state as many characteristics or attributes as possible. For example, if the concept is polygon, the essential characteristics would include shape, many sides. 2. Introduce the concept and give the students the opportunity to generate examples. They can work in groups to add or challenge examples given. They identify the key characteristics of the concept. 3. Give students a selection to read based on the concept. They confirm or reject the information they have given during the 97 brainstorming session. They go back to the list, extract the characteristics that have been confirmed. Students ask additional questions for clarification. For example, the student may ask: Why are triangles and rectangles called polygons? 4. Students practise using the model. FRAYER MODEL ESSENTIAL NON-ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS CHARACTERISTICS - Has three or more angles. - Length of sides. - Has three or more sides. - Size of angles. - Is a closed figure. - Is a plane figure. -The sum of the interior angles = (2n – 4) right angles. TOPIC/WORD POLYGON EXAMPLES NON-EXAMPLES - Triangle - Circle - Square - Semi-circle - Rectangle - Angle - Rhombus - Arc - Parallelogram - Line - Quadrilateral - Pentagon - Hexagon (E) Proposition/Support Outline Preposition/Support Outline helps students become critical readers as they interact with materials that present viewpoints, opinions, debates, theories or hypotheses. This strategy helps the student to develop analytical and thinking skills as they examine the types of argument an author uses to support a conclusion or generalization. They are also encouraged to analyse supporting details used in their arguments. The completed outlines provide a basis for class discussion and debates. They also facilitate writing assignments that express opinion. 98 The Proposition/Support Outline involves the following: 1. Discuss with students the differences between facts and opinions. Students are encouraged to give examples of each and to construct definitions. 2. Introduce the term ‘proposition’ and provide students with several propositions. Also, encourage them to suggest their own. - The Television promotes violence. - Corporal punishment in Schools should be abolished. - Youths should participate in the governing of their country. 3. Model for students the categories used for support – facts, statistics, examples, expert testimony, logic and reasoning. 4. Give students a piece of writing and let them prepare an outline. 5. Discuss with students the kind of supporting details presented to see how convincing they are. 6. Students read material to investigate propositions and research to find out how they may be supported. Sharks Sharks are not as dangerous to humans as humans are to sharks. Marine biologists have carried out surveys to determine the ratio of humans to sharks that die at sea every year. Even though millions of people venture into the ocean each year, fewer than fifty serious shark attacks occur on the average and only ten of these are fatal. The reason for this low accident rate is that most sharks are afraid of creatures as large as humans. Of the 350 known species of sharks, only one – the great white shark – is totally unafraid of humans. Meanwhile, humans kill sharks in record numbers. Thousands are hunted and slain each year for food. Thousands more are killed by under water nets positioned off the beaches to protect swimmers in Australia and 99 South Africa. Even the great white shark is diminishing in number as humans hunt it for its teeth and jaws, which are sold as collector’s items. Maybe, it is time we begin worrying less about protecting people from sharks and more about protecting sharks from people. Houton Miffin English (1984) Grammar and Composition, Fourth Course p. 426 Proposition/Support Outline Proposition: Sharks are not as dangerous to human beings as human beings are to sharks. Support: 1. Facts Millions of people venture into the oceans each year. Sharks are afraid of creatures as large as humans. 2. Statistics Fewer than fifty shark attacks occur each year. Only about 10 shark attacks each year are fatal. Of the 350 species of sharks only the white shark is totally unafraid of humans. 3. Examples Sharks are hunted and slain for food. Sharks are killed by under water nets. The teeth and jaws of the great white shark are sold as collective items. 4. Expert Authority Marine biologists have carried out surveys to determine the ratio of humans to sharks that die at sea every year. 5. Logic and Reasoning Maybe it is time we begin worrying less about protecting people from sharks and more about protecting sharks from people. 100 Buhel, Doug (2001) Classroom Strategies for Interactive Learning 2nd ed. Newark, D.E: International Reading Association. (F) Concept/Definition Mapping This is a strategy that helps to enrich a student’s understanding of a word or concept. The concept/definition is a graphic structure that focuses the student’s attention on the key component of a definition. The student integrates personal knowledge into the definition. It helps students to extend their vocabulary while they acquire concepts as they go beyond the dictionary definitions. The construction of a visual representation serves as an aid to memory. Concept/Definition Mapping involves the following steps: (1) Display the map with the concept and get students to discuss it according to the categories given. For example, they would say what it is by placing it in a category; say what it is like by stating its characteristics or qualities; give some examples of items that fit the category. Model how to use the map. (2) Present a new key term or concept from materials the students are learning. For example, you may be discussing vertebrates but more specifically mammals. (3) After students have completed the construction of the concept / definition maps, let them use the maps to write a complete definition. The definition should include the category of the word, its properties or characteristics and specific examples. It should be noted that the definition would comprise several sentences instead of a simple dictionary statement. Give students practice in constructing concept/definition maps for other terms and concepts found in other reading materials. 101 Example of Definition The savannah is a natural region in Guyana that experiences a cool climate. It is tropical grassland with scattered trees including the balata. Cattle-rearing is done in this region. Lethem, Aishalton, and St. Ignatius are located in the savannah. Concept/Definition Map What is it? What is it like? Savannah Tropical grassland Scattered trees Natural Region Cool climate LETHEM AISHALTON ST. IGNATIUS What are some examples? Buhel, Doug (2001) Classroom Strategies for Interactive Learning. 2nd ed. Newark, D.E: International Reading Association. During the Reading The students would have been motivated by one of the pre-reading exercises and are ready to read, interpret and understand the reading material. 102 During the teaching/learning process the students should be exposed to an equal weighting of the comprehension skills. These skills are:  Literal comprehension  Time and place relationships  Sequencing  Cause and effect relationships  Fact and opinion  The main idea  Making inferences  Word in context  Understanding graphs, tables and advertisements The teaching of any comprehension skill should proceed from TEACHING PRACTICE APPLICATION ASSESSMENT Students should be given the opportunity to read and reflect, and through structured discussion and interaction share their understanding of the material. Literal Comprehension At this level of understanding the students are required to read and note the facts and details presented. The information that is recalled usually answers to the question why, where, when, what and who. Teaching Example A Report John was riding his bicycle along Richmond Street on Saturday 15th February at about 5.00 p.m. He was crossing the street and did not see the approaching car. The car was travelling at a great speed and when the driver saw John he swerved out of the path of the bicycle on to the pavement. Luckily no one was on the pavement at that time. John 103 escaped injuries but the car was seriously damaged. The driver, however, was not hurt but he was very angry at John These facts and details can be had by asking questions such as: 1. When did the accident occur? 2. Where bib it happen? 3. Who were the persons involved? 4. How did the incident happen? These are literal comprehension questions that are used to get the facts and information from the passage. It should be noted that the passage is a report and this comprehension exercise can be used to point out to students that the when, why, where, who and what questions must be answered when composing a report. Practice/Apply/Assess Example A hurricane begins near the equator, in the tropical or warmest areas of the ocean. Strong winds come together there and begin to whirl in a huge circle. If you could see the winds-which you can’t-they would look like a giant wheel. A hurricane circle of winds may be as much as 500 miles wide. Most hurricanes occur during the period from May through October. The winds of a hurricane blow at speeds of 75 miles per hour or faster. And a hurricane moves across the ocean at about 10 to 15 miles per hour. It usually moves in a northwest direction. Inside the winds of a hurricane is an area called the eye. In the eye, the winds are light. After a ship passes through the winds of a hurricane into the eye, it will seam to those aboard that the storm is over. But the ship will have to pass through the winds on the other side of the hurricane’s circle. Some hurricanes will die down before they reach land. But those that don’t can cause great damage. The winds are so strong they can overturn automobiles and damage houses. A hurricane also stirs up large waves on the ocean. They can destroy docks and piers, wash away roads and destroy buildings near the shore. Heavy rainstorms also come with the hurricane. The giant downpour can force rivers or streams to overflow and cause floods. 104 Questions: 1. Where does a hurricane begin? 2. At what time do most hurricanes occur? 3. How wide is the circle of the winds in a hurricane? 4. What is the wind speed of a hurricane? 5. In what direction does a hurricane usually travel? 6. What is the ‘eye’ of the hurricane/ 7. What kinds of damage can a hurricane cause/ 8. What effect does a hurricane have on rivers and streams? Time and Place Relationships This comprehension skill enables the student to recognize when and where actions or events take place. The writer usually tells when an event has taken place or how much time has passed between one event and another. Words such as after, when, during, next, then and while are used to indicate time. Practice/Apply/Assess Example How did the saga of Trinidad oil begin? What led to the discovery of oil in this island? The story is told that this substance, which has become the backbone of Trinidad’s economy, was first discovered in 1870 by a huntsman in the Guayaguay are forest. He took a sample of the liquid from a forest seepage, and showed it to the Warden. The Warden in turn had the sample sent to London to be analysed. The quality of the oil was found to be of such a high standard that the analyst returned the sample saying that it was artificial Anyway, among the people interested in the discovery of oil, hopes were still very much alive, because the experts were sure that oil existed in Trinidad. To them, one unfailing indication of it was the asphalt lake at La Brea, the bitumen of which was said to be a component of petroleum. Ten years before, in 1860, two geologists, Wall and Sawkins, had conducted a geological survey of the island, and their report had been favourable enough to attract oil prospectors to these shores. 105 The first oil well to be drilled in Trinidad was one under the charge of Captain Walter Darwent at Aripero, South Trinidad, in 1867. Using a wooden derrick, Darwent went down to 200 metres when he seemed to have struck a bed of oil. However, because the operations were so costly, and because the project was poorly financed, Darwent could not make the best of his opportunity. After seeing His dream half fulfilled, the brave pioneer had to give up. In fact he died very soon afterwards. Questions (1) Where was the substance found? (2) When did Wall and Sawkins conduct a geological survey of Trinidad? (3) Where was the first oil well drilled in Trinidad? (4) When did the brave pioneer, Darwent, die? (5) Where was the ‘substance’ first sent? (6) How long after the geological survey was oil discovered? (7) In paragraph 3, to what shores does the writer refer? Cause – Effect Relationship In a story some event or person can cause something else to happen, this is called a cause – relationship. The question ‘Why did something happen?’ is asking for the cause. The question ‘What happened?’ is asking for the effect or result. Teaching Example A. Give the students sentences to identify the ‘cause’ and ‘effect’. 1. The cricket team was happy because they won the match. Cause – They won the match.________________________________ Effect – The cricket team was happy.__________________________ 2. The night was so dark that we could not see the pathway. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ 106 3. She fell asleep on the couch because the music was soft and soothing. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ B. Give them the ‘cause’ sentence and three other sentences to tick the corresponding ‘effect’ The rose plant was not watered for three days. 1. On the fourth day it withered and died. 2. We planted more roses in the morning. 3. The owner of the house went on a holiday. C. Give them an ‘effect’ sentence and three other sentences to tick the ‘cause’ that created the effect. She went on a strict diet of vegetables and fruit. 1. She felt she was overweight. 2. She liked eating all kind of meat. 3. She looked very slim after that. Practice/Apply/Access Example Roxanne and her sister Jane were going to Prize Giving Day in their school. Roxanne had won the first prize in the Essay Competition. Their father had promised to come home early to take them to the function. The two sisters got dressed and waited. They were anxiously looking at the clock when the phone rang. “Roxanne,” he said, “I am in a heavy traffic jam. I’ll b late. Can you call your cousin, David and ask him to take you?” Roxanne called her cousin, but he was not at home. She became uneasy, for if they arrived late the principal would be annoyed. The door bell rang and in walked Aunt Enid. “Oh! Aunt Enid. We are so glad to see you!” remarked the two sisters. They were relieved, for now they could attend the function on time. 107 The cause and effect relationships are: Question - What caused their father to be late?  A heavy traffic jam caused their father to be late. CAUSE: There was a traffic jam EFFECT: Their father would be arriving late. Question – Why couldn’t their cousin Peter, take them to the Prize Function?  Peter was not at home when they called. CAUSE: Peter was not at home EFFECT: He could not take the girls to the function. Question – What effect had Aunt Julia’s entrance?  They were glad and relieved. CAUSE: Aunt Julie would take them. RESULT: They would not be late for the function. These cause and effect relationships can be charted on this diagram CAUSE EFFECT _________________________ _________________________ Why did something happen? What happened? ______________________________ _______________________________ There was a traffic jam. Their father would be arriving late. _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ It should be noted that the effect could either be explicit or implied in the text. Fact and Opinion A fact is something that is true; it can be proved to be true. E.g. Trinidad is an island in the West Indies. 108 An opinion is a personal feeling or thought that varies from person to person. It is influenced by a person’s perception, preference or outlook. E.g. Trinidad is a beautiful island. As is said ‘beauty is in the eye of the beholder’, therefore everyone would not share the same opinion about Trinidad. It is important that students are able to tell the difference between fact and opinion when reading. Teaching Example Students will identify the statements that are ‘fact’ and those that are ‘opinion’ and state the reasons why. 1. The book weighs two pounds. FACT It can be weighed and proven. 2. Homework deprives children of leisure pursuits. OPINION The statement is debatable not everyone would agree with it. 3. The anopheles mosquito spreads malaria. FACT _______________________________________________________________________ 4. Rain hardly ever falls in the desert. __________________________________________________________ _ 5. Girls study harder than boys. __________________________________________________________ _ Practice/Apply/Access Example Students can be asked to select the statements of ‘fact’ and those of ‘opinion’ from this extract. 109 All the children in the area attend the Government school. The teachers in that school are hardworking and ambitious. Some of the children are keen on their studies. They study English Language, Mathematics, Science and Social Studies. These subjFeactcst are very important to them. OOpnin Fiorniday Some of the acfhtieldrnreono anrse tkheeyn aorne t haelilrowAedll thoe pclhaiyld rgeanm ine sth oe nar etha eattend the studies. playground. In that schooGlo tvheern bmoeynst sacrheo ohl.ealthier than the girls. The girls study harder than the boys. They study EnItg lish t hLean bgeusatg es,chool in thTe hRe etegaiochne.r sI ti nw tahsa t bsuchiloto tlo are Mathematics,a Sccioemncme aondda tSeo fcoiaulr hundrehda srdtuwdoernkitnsg. and ambitious. Studies. These subjects are very important to On Friday afternoons they are allowed them. to play games on the playground. The girls study harder than the boys. In that school the boys are healthier than the girls. It is the best school in the Region. It was built to accommodate four hundred students. Students can also be asked to select the report that is ‘factual’ and the one that is ‘opined’ and state the reasons. (a) The fire at Kent School started in the laboratory and spread rapidly to other parts of the school building. (Sbtu) dTehnets f ijruem apt eKde nint Hdiegshp eSrcahtiooonl satnadrt esdu fifne rtehde sbcrioeknecne lliambobrsa taonryd. sSetvuedreen btsu rdness.p Ietr aitse at os heasmcaep eth ajutm sope dm atneny fceheitld breelno wh atdo thtoe gsruofufenrd bfleocoaru. sMe aonfy ocaf rtehleemss ssucfifeenrecde bteraockheenrs .li mMbusc. h S emvoenraely cwhiilldlr ebne wreeqruei rterdap ptoed .re bTuhieldy bdeagmaang esdcr eaarmeains.g Iann df urutunrnei ntge awchiledrlsy . sThhoeu lfdir eb eb rimgaodree acrarrievfeudl. oTnh etyh ea rsec erensep ownisthibinle mfoirn uthtees s.a Ffeirtyem oef nc hfioldurgehnt hata rsdch otool .control the blaze. Children trapped were brought to safety. Many of them suffered severe burns and were taken to the hospital for treatment. The cause of the fire is still unknown. The ground floor is burnt entirely. Several classrooms on the upper floor were also burnt 110 Inferential Comprehension Students will be able to:  Identify ideas inferred from given facts (in print or pictorial).  Predict outcomes.  Grasp the writer’s plan and intent. In Grades 7 and 8 students should have been familiar with literal meaning, time and space relationship, sequencing, the main idea and supporting details, word in context, inference, fact and opinion and understanding simple tables and advertisements. In Grade 9 students will get more practice in the foregoing topics in a variety of settings. One such setting is to ask students to read a passage and then answer multiple choice questions or allow them to formulate their own responses e.g. Passage Leaving for school on mornings, I walked slowly through the busy parts of the town. The business places would all be opening then, and smells of strange fragrance would fill the High Street. Inside the opening doors I would see clerks dusting, arranging, hanging things up, ready for the day’s business. They looked cheerful and eager and they opened the doors very wide. Sometimes I stood up to watch them. In places between the stores several little alleys ran off the High Street. Some were busy and some were not and there was one that was long and narrow and dark and very strange. Here, too, the shops would be opening as I passed and there would be bearded Indians in loin-cloths spreading rugs on the pavement. There would be Indian women also, with veils thrown over their shoulders, setting up their stalls and chatting in a strange, sweet tongue. Often I stood, too, watching them, and taking in the strange fragrance of rugs, spices, onions and sweetmeats. And sometimes, suddenly remembering, I would hurry away for fear the school bell had gone. 1. The best title for the passage is (A) Strange Smells. (B) Setting up of Stalls. (C) Opening of Business Places. 111 (D) Busy Activities of the Town. Answer Strange Smells – refers to “smells of strange fragrance” and “strange fragrance of rugs … sweetmeats”, but to none of the other activities. “Setting up stalls” – refers only to “There would be women … setting up their stalls”. The passage deals with more than the Opening of Business Places; hence (D) is more appropriate. 2. The writer walked slowly to school because (A) He was lazy and carefree. (B) He was not sure of the route. (C) He was attracted by scenes of activity. (D) The streets were busy. Answer The answer to this recall question comes directly from the passage. 3. “Strange sweet tongue” means (A) Good pleasant taste. (B) Unfamiliar but musical language. Answer (C) Rare taste for sweet things. (D) Flattering words and accents. Students need practice in gleaning meaning from the context to select the correct word or phrase to replace the ones used therein. The word “chatting” indicates that the writer has to be referring to speech/language and not taste. Consequently (B) and (D) are the two possible options. Since nothing in the passage suggests that the women had any reason for flattery, “Unfamiliar but musical language” is the only feasible answer. 4. We can infer from the details of the passage that (A) The writer was afraid of being late for school. Answer (B) The writer did not care to go to school. (C) The writer was in the habit of reaching school late. (D) The writer did not enjoy going to school. 112 The last line of the passage gives the impression that he did not want to imagine that the school-bell had gone; hence he would hurry away. The school bell signals the assembly of school. 5. The writer appeals most to our sense of (A) touch. (B) smell. (C) hearing. (D) sight. Answer There is no evidence that he touched anything. He did hear the “chatting in a strange sweet tongue”, and inhale the ”smells of strange fragrance” and “took in the fragrance of rugs, spices, onions and sweetmeats” However, he was fascinated by all the activities and scenes “in and off the High Street”. 6. The writer’s main purpose in this passage is (A) To describe his journey to school. (B) To describe the fascinating sights and smells of the town. Answer (C) To describe the business places in the town. (D) To describe the experiences before reaching school. Having read the passage students discard (A), (B) and (D), because these options only tell part of the writer’s story. 7. Which word best describes the mood of the clerks? (A) zealous (B) busy Answer (C) wild (D) talkative The clerks were working purposefully “dusting, arranging hanging things up, getting ready for the day’s business”. A comprehension passage need not only be an extract but can also be a poem. Example 113 Over the grass the hedgehog came Questing the air for scents of food And the cracked twig of danger. He shuffled near in the gloom. Then stopped. He was aware of me, I went up, Bent low to look at him, and saw His coat of lances pointing to my hand. What could I do To show I was no enemy? I turned him over, inspected his small clenched paws, His eyes expressionless as glass, And did not know how I could speak, By tongue or touch, the language of a friend. It was grief to be a friend Yet to be dumb; to offer peace. And bring the soldiers out…………. Clifford Dyment 1 Why did the hedgehog come over the grass? (A) To search for a place to rest. (B) To smell the air. (C) To look for food. (D) To break the twigs. 2. The atmosphere was (A) bright (B) dark (C) clouds (D) misty 3. To what does ‘his coat of lances’ (l.7.) refer? (A) The thorns in the bushes. (B) The long blades of grass. (C) The sharp bristles on the hedgehog. (D) The rough coat of the hedgehog. 4. Why was the writer grieved? (A) He could not take the hedgehog home. (B) He could no communicate with the hedgehog. 114 (C) The hedgehog threatened him. (D) The hedgehog was hungry and alone. 5. What did the writer do to show friendship? (A) He turned him over and examined him. (B) He bent low to look at him. (C) He held his coat of lances. (D) He spoke the language of a friend. 6. ‘To be dumb’ (l. 15) refers to (A) the hedgehog (B) the writer (C) all people (D) a friend 7. ‘And bring the soldiers out’ (L. 16). To what does soldiers refer. (A) An army of hedgehog. (B) The other animals around. (C) The quills on the hedgehog’s body. (D) The warlike creatures. These kinds of questions test the different comprehension skills. Summary A summary is a brief overview of something that was read. Most summaries cover the material in the same order the information is presented. 115 The student must convey a balanced overview of what is read. They should not include their own opinion on the topic or the writing style. They should be brief and not rewrite the text. Method Students should:  Study the passage until they find the theme; then record it.  Make rough notes one section at a time.  Link up notes properly so that they do not read in a jerky or unconnected way.  Check for length and amend when necessary; write out the final version. Points to note: Students should:  Always cross out their rough work.  Desist from turning the whole passage into reported speech. Dialogue may be converted into reported speech.  Not use direct questions.  Omit details, examples, repetition and irrelevant remarks.  Not add to or comment on the subject matter.  Make the summary the required length, if any limits are set.  Sum up a mass of details in one or two sentences.  Only copy passages from the original unless there is no better way of expressing an idea.  Check the final summary for accuracy of language, punctuation etc. Passage The national parks of Africa are an important economic asset of the territories in which they lie, for they attract tourists (our tiresome word for modern pilgrims and travellers); and tourists bring in a substantial 116 revenue, not merely through disbursements in the national parks themselves, but chiefly through what they spend in the country at large, on transport, accommodation, equipment, photography and souvenirs. The national parks and wild-life preserves are now the main reasons why they come to East Africa, and one of the main reasons why they come to South Africa and Mozambique; and the same could soon hold good for Central Africa. Tourism is increasing in volume throughout Africa’s wild-life area, and in Kenya, for instance has already become the largest source of national revenue, to the tune of $20 million. What is more, it is capable of a very large further increase in the near future (of course, always provided there is no World War, and no major political trouble in eastern Africa). So long as Western prosperity continues, with populations increasing and industrialisation being intensified, more and more people will want to escape farther and farther from its results, in the shape of over-large and overcrowded cities, smoke, noise, boring routine and over- mechanisation of life. Air travel will certainly become cheaper and more popular, and will take more people farther afield. I would prophesy that the revenue to be derived from tourism in East Africa (which already runs to well over $25 million) could be certainly increased five-fold, and probably ten-fold, in the next ten years, provided that the business is properly organised. It will be necessary to improve access to the national parks and accommodation within them, catering both for those who like comfort and those who prefer a more do-it- yourself holiday; to provide museums and guides; to maintain a really adequate staff of wardens, scientists and games scouts, good fencing and anti-poaching measures; and to produce the right sort of publicity. It will be necessary to work in co-operation with travel and tourist agencies in arranging good holidays, efficient itineraries and so-called package tours, to set up new national parks, and to open new areas, such as parts of the coast and the uplands, for the enjoyment of visitors; and all of this without overcrowding the national parks. That would spell their ruination (already at some seasons some of the roads in the Kruger Park are overcrowded with cars full of tourists). This will cost money – quite a lot of money. So far, game departments and national parks have been among the most neglected of government departments in Africa: how can they be provided with this extra finance? I would hazard the guess that if the African territories could co-operate in the latter, and make a reasoned application to the United Nations agency for a loan to develop their tourist trade, they would have a good chance of getting it. 117 Rough Notes - National parks important in economic life of some African countries Attract tourists and bring direct and indirect revenue to countries. - Particularly so in East and South Africa Could be in Central. - Increasing no. of people from West will take advantage of cheaper air fares to travel more widely to avoid industrialisation. - Revenue could probably be increased 10-fold in next decade if facilities in and out of parks improved. - Good organisation and new parks needed to avoid overcrowding. Loan could perhaps be obtained from a U.N. agency, if concerned African countries produce co-operative plan of development. These notes are made in point form and abbreviations, with which students are familiar, are permissible. However, students must ensure that the final summary is cohesive. Final Summary National parks and wild-life reserves play an important part in the economic life of some African countries, particularly in East and South Africa. They attract tourists and thus bring substantial direct and indirect revenue. In Kenya, for example, tourists are the second largest source of revenue, and there are potentialities in Central Africa. With the rise in population in the West and with continued prosperity there, an increasing number of people will take advantage of cheaper fares to travel more widely, seeking to avoid the unpleasantness of their industrialised environment. If there were improved facilities in and out of the parks, the revenue from tourism could probably be increased as much as ten-fold in the next decade. To achieve this, it is vital to have good organisation and new national parks to avoid overcrowding. One way of financing this work would be by way of a loan that could perhaps be 118 obtained from a United Nations agency if the interested African countries produced a co-operative plan for development. Graphics Graphics is another way of presenting summarised information. The reading and understanding of these graphics is also comprehension and students need to develop the skill of visual thinking to interpret the information presented. Kinds of Graphics  Tables  Cluster diagram  Graphs  Maps  Advertisements Maps 119 A blue line in a land mass indicates a river. The colours suggest the specifics about its divisions. There are other symbols used that give information about this area. Students should be given practice in using the colour key to extract information and to draw conclusions. Maps are a representation of a portion of earth, showing what it contains and what its features are. Types of maps:  Political – shows features that are created by or reflect the culture of a people, such as countries, cities, districts, regions or roads.  Physical - shows the natural features of the earth, such as rivers, mountains and plains Political and physical maps usually show large areas: the world, a country, a state, a city. Students should be given practice in using the colour key of maps to extract information and draw conclusions. Maps can also show smaller areas: the houses in a neighbourhood, the buildings on a college campus, or the location of rooms in a building. A map, a floor plan is used by architects when designing a building. 120 Double lines are used to show walls and windows. Spaces show doorways. The parts of the house are labelled. Students can label the unlabelled areas on the house plan. Venn Diagram A Venn diagram may be used to show the similarities and differences between two people/objects … that are related somehow. A comparison between a dog and a piano will be nonsensical. But a comparison between a dog and a cat may reveal some interesting similarities and differences between these animals. Preparing a Venn diagram Draw two intersecting circles. Title the circles with the subjects to be compared. List the unique features of each subject. List the similarities of the two subjects in the space where the circles intersect. 121 Differences Likeness Audio Audio Ads Visual Ads Having identified the unique features and the common ones students can formulate an oral or written paragraph or several paragraphs based on the data. Students need to be reminded of the necessity for transitional words/phrases such as but, however, in the same way, like, unlike, similarly, on the other hand. Graphs Often a graph is the best way to convey numerical information. Graphs can reveal patterns of relationships among different numerical facts or statistics; thus they can be useful tools in comparison-contrast writing. 122 Whenever students use graphics in their writing, they should place them and refer to them so that they make the greatest impact on the reader. Students can put the diagram at:  The beginning of their written work. To capture the reader’s attention and establish a basic framework.  In the middle of an essay type answer. Students may include graphics that convey a great amount of information in a concise way, reinforce information or serve as a handy reference for the reader.  At the end of an expository piece. Students will probably want to summarise their main points. Whenever and however they use graphics, they need to let the reader know why they are there and when to look at them. 123 Students must remember to title graphics clearly when they present more than one. In that way the reader will not be confused and can refer to the appropriate graphic quickly and easily.  For a homework assignment students may be asked to list writing situations or subjects for which each type of graphic may be used.  In a class discussion their peers can examine the individual suggestions, make comments and give reasons for their other preference. Understanding Text Writers select information and use loaded words very carefully, so as to influence the readers. Students need to be alert and watch out for a writer’s bias which is created by specific word used or specific word omitted on purpose. It is absolutely necessary to separate the writer’s feeling from the information he or she is giving. A. Letter to the Editor To the Editor: In my opinion, drunk-driving laws are not nearly as strict enough. Anyone caught driving drunk should have his or her driver’s licence taken away immediately – and never returned. Why should some drunk be given a second chance to murder innocent people? 1. What are the three loaded words?  Drunk  Murder  Innocent Let students discuss in small groups the effectiveness of the three loaded words. 124 -. Drunk makes the reader feel that the person drinks regularly, and is not socially acceptable. -. Murder suggests that the drunk kills people on purpose. -. Innocent portrays the dead as good and kind; hence the reader detests the drunk even more. 2. What is the writer’s intention? For the reader to have no sympathy for people who drink and drive 3. What is the phrase that tells the reader that the writer is giving a personal opinion? Let students read or write the sentence that contains the phrase. “In my opinion.” In groups have students read and examine two articles to determine by the use of words which is bias and which is factual. They can note words and expressions, which show the writer’s bias. B. News Articles 1. Today, Terry Roach became the 2. Today, Terry Roach, 25, walked second person in 22 years to be into the death chamber at South executed in the U.S. for crimes Carolina’s Central Correctional committed while he was a juvenile. Institution in Columbia. Soon after, he He was sentenced to death for became only the second person in 22 murdering a 16-year-old girlfriend in years to be executed in the U.S. for cold blood. After finding the young crimes committed while he was a couple in their car, Roach and two of juvenile. He was sentenced to death his sick friends shot the boy three for killing two teenagers when he was times in the head. They then fired 17 years old. five shots into the girl. Roach, a surly no-account, was 17 at the time he committed the crime. 125 ARTICLE 1 ARTICLE 2 Biased Factual Provides more information/details to Just wants the reader to know exactly show how cruel Roach and his “sick” what happened. He/She is not trying to friends were. convince the reader that Roach is good or bad. Calls Roach a “brutal, heartless murderer”. Since he is also “brutal and Says Roach “killed the teenagers. A heartless” and “kills in cold blood” no “killer” doesn’t sound nearly as bad as reader will sympathise with him. In fact, a “murderer” The reader may even the reader feels that he deserves to think that it was accidental. die. The addition of he was “no-account” and had “sick friends” further convinces the reader of his callousness. C. Reports 1. Mary Davis, a 46-year-old 2. Mary Davis is suing Stanford English teacher at Stanford University. The tall, awkward University, is suing the university to former English teacher claims that get her job back. She says she was she was fired because she fired because in 1994 she failed six refused to pass eight of the basketball players in her English university’s best basketball class. The university asked her to players. University officials say change the grades so the athletes that Ms. Davis was fired for other could play basketball. She refused, reasons. They say that Ms. Davis, and the university let them play who recently had a nervous anyway. When she objected, she breakdown, was uncooperative, was fired. difficult to work with and unpleasant to her students. 1. How are these two reports different? 126 ____ (1) One is about Stanford University, and one is about Mary Davis. ____ (2) One says Ms. Davis is suing the university, and the the university is suing Ms Davis. ____ (3) They include different information about Ms. Davis. ____ (4) One is biased against Ms. Davis, and the other is not biased. ___(5) Both 3 and 4. The first paragraph gives the facts of the case, but the second paragraph is biased against Ms. Davis. The reader knows this because the writer says she is “awkward”. He also states that she had a nervous breakdown. Finally, he includes all the negative things the university officials said about her. 2. Which of the following do you think is used as a loaded word? _____ (1) Awkward _____..(2) Tall _____..(3) Unpleasant ____ (4) Both 1 and 2 _____ (5) Both 1 and 3 Both “awkward” and “unpleasant” made the reader feel negative emotions. 3. Scan the two paragraphs to find when Ms. Davis failed the athletes. Write the last sentence you had to read to find the information. 4. Read the two paragraphs and find the sentence that makes you feel that Ms. Davis is physically unattractive. 5. Write the sentence from the second paragraph that suggests that the reader shouldn’t believe Ms. Davis. 127 6. Which paragraph is obviously biased against Ms. Davis? Give evidence to support your view. D. Report of a Meeting At a meeting of the City Council, the councillors were discussing a proposal to build a new sports stadium. Here is the speech made by Councillor Williams of he wishes to oppose the location of the structure. Mr. Williams: “I agree with the project entirely but not with the proposed site. It’s not that I’m against the idea of helping the youth of our city, but I think a better site can be found – one that will do greater honour to the fine youth of our great city. Remember that the youth of today are the leaders of tomorrow. Sport is important but health and education are more pressing. The time may not be opportune for the expenditure of $20 000 000. on a stadium, so I suggest we defer the scheme for the time being.” Newspaper Report- Hostile At the City Council other matters were more meeting held yesterday, important than sports, Mr. Williams admitted especially when it came that he was against the to spending money. He idea of helping the voted against the young people of our proposal. city. He did not agree with the site and claimed that 128 1. How does the report create an unfavourable impression of Mr. Williams? 2. What dishonesty can you find in the report? Newspaper Report- Supportive Speaking on behalf of the the Council to find the best democratic and freedom-loving possible site. His aim, he Citizens Party, Councillor declared passionately, was to Williams expresses his entire force the Council to pay greater agreement with the fine honour to the city’s youth than principles behind the proposal. they had done before. He He looked forward to a time warned the opposition that the when the city would provide the young men and women of today magnificent facilities to which would be the leaders of the young people were entitled. tomorrow, despite barriers put in He pointed out the importance of their way, and mentioned the health and education in the life expenditure of $20 000 00 on a of the young worker and urged stadium in the near future. 1. How does this report create a favourable impression of Mr. Williams? 2. What dishonesty does it contain? Divide the class in four  Allow each group to field a team for or against two topics suggested by the students.  Be a facilitator as students prepare their case ‘for’ or ‘against.  Stage the arguments. 129  Allow the other students to give their views on the validity of the views presented. Advertisements Advertisements thrive on loaded words not facts. They are written to make buyers think that one product is much better than another. The words and pictures chosen influence feeling and may result in the reader buying the item. 130 Encourage students to study advertisements and reports in newspapers and magazines to identify examples of the following: a. Opinions given as facts b. Opinions and facts cleverly mixed together to create the impression that all the statements are facts. c. Dishonesty by exaggeration d. Dishonesty by distortion of facts e. Dishonesty by the suppression of facts vital to the case f. Misleading claims made by the use of words with a strong emotive feeling. From time to time similar selections can be used to give students practice in speaking and listening. Use of Figurative Language Writers use figurative language – a word or phrase used in an imaginative way rather than in the literal sense - to create interest and clarity. Any figurative expressions e.g. simile, metaphor, personification used, serves the needs of the writer’s thought, purpose and audience. Students have to be trained to look out for the figurative expressions used in oral and written communication and interpret the meaning and purpose for which they are used.  Denotation refers to the straightforward dictionary meaning or definition of words. 131 Example: In road signs ‘P’ denotes a car park.  Connotations are the feelings and values readers usually associate with any given word; associations that go beyond the simple dictionary definition of the word. 132 Examples: (a) The language faculty discussed the proposed grading system. (b) The language faculty debated the proposed grading system. (c) The language faculty argued about the proposed grading system. (b) The language faculty quarrelled over the proposed grading system.  Simile compares one thing to another by using the word like or as. Example: My journey to Morawhanna was like a bad dream. Literal -.At a billion, the population of China is staggering. Simile -.Numbering one billion, the people of China seem as numerous as blades of grass.  Metaphor describes a thing as something else in order to suggest a likeness. Example: The plane ride to St. Lucia was a nightmare. Literal -.During the 1970’s, Dr. Walter Rodney worked aggressively and tirelessly in defence of his principles. Metaphor -.During the 1970’s, Dr. Walter Rodney carried an unsheathed sword in defence of his principles. Discuss with students what a different mental picture “carried a heavy club” would paint if used in the above sentence.  Personification gives human qualities to objects, animals or things Example: Flowers saluted the morning sun.  Pun is a joking use of a word sounding the same as another Example: Deciding where to bury him was a grave decision 133  Irony says the opposite for emphasis. Example: “What a lovely day!” It may be raining or there may be several problems at work. It describes an oddly contradictory situation: e.g. Example: The irony of it is that I tripped while telling Jane to be careful.  Oxymoron is a sharp saying which at first view appears foolish, or combines contradictory ideas. Example: Thunderous silence…  Synecdoche: A part represents the whole: Example: ‘Tis God gives skill (talent), but not without men’s hands (whole person).  Litotes is a statement which denies its opposite. Example: There is no little enemy. Exercises  Select a short passage from a novel or short story that uses figurative language. Rewrite the passage, changing the figurative language to literal language. Which style is more effective – figurative or literal? Have a class discussion on the reasons for their choice.  Find a three- or four-paragraph passage in a history or science textbook. Rewrite the passage, expressing the same information but using figurative language. Structured Note Taking Structured note-taking is a strategy for creating graphic outlines that help students to take notes in an organized manner. It is a graphic organizer that provides students with a framework for seeing relationships between 134 ideas. This facilitates memorization of the material read. Notes constructed by the students themselves stimulate independent thinking and creativity. Structured Note taking involves the following steps:  Preview the content to identify the organizational pattern of the material, for example, problem/solution, cause and effect.  Create a graphic organizer using boxes, circles, arrows and other visual structures to reflect the organizational pattern of the material.  Students work in pairs to select information for the graphic outline and place these in the relevant sections.  After exposure to a number of models involving different text structures, students will be able to do their own structured note taking. Save the Turtles at Shell Beach More and more turtles turn up dead on Guyana’s shores. Authorities are seeking to implement measures to prevent them from becoming extinct as the mortality figure is very high. The Olive Ridley is one of four endangered species of sea turtles that have become extinct in Guyana. A large number of turtles wash up on shores dead and flipperless. It has been observed that the Olive Ridley turtle has not been seen in Guyana for the past three years. What has been responsible for the disappearance of turtles in Guyana? It has been observed that trawlers involved in the catching of fish and shrimp do not use the Turtle Excluder Devices (TED’S) as required by the U.S. law. Although the main focus is on trawlers, fishermen with drift 135 seines are largely responsible for the deaths of sea turtles. The sea turtles are accidentally caught by drift seines and instead of releasing them the fishermen cut off their flippers and throw them back into the sea where they die by drowning because they are starved of oxygen. For example, a large leatherback turtle was washed up dead on the Kitty foreshore with its flippers chopped off. Sea turtles are also hunted and caught by poachers to be eaten. The eggs are also sought after for the same purpose. It is necessary to implement measures to protect endangered species of sea turtles since turtle protection is an international concern. One of these measures is to place more resources at the disposal of the rangers who patrol the beaches. There is also need for education programmes to make persons aware of the importance of turtle preservation. For example, the British High Commission has funded an education project for Santa Rosa. Another plan for protection is the prohibition of drift seine activity during the egg-laying and nesting season. Also, there should be implementation of Turtle Excluder Devices (TED’S). Finally, funding should be sought from International donor foundations such as the World Wildlife Fund. Adapted from articles by Owen Evelyn and Miranda La Rose in Sunday Chronicle and Sunday Stabroek respectively, March12, 2000. Example of Notes Name of endangered animal Sea turtle – Olive Ridley Habitat the sea - Shell Beach - Turtles are being caught in drift seines Kind of problem -.Their flippers are cut off and they drown from lack of oxygen -. Eggs are stolen 136 -.Trawlers - Use of exclusive devices -.Fishermen who use drift Causes of problem seines - Poachers - Equip beach rangers properly Solution to problem - Implement educational programmes. - Prohibit the use of drift seines during nesting -.Enforce law for use of TED’s -.Seek funding SPEAKING and LISTENING Students need to take account of the context in which they will speak. Is it  A debate?  A prepared speech by an individual?  A panel discussion?  A meeting? Will they be required to  Ask questions?  Answer questions? Will the venue be too large for posters or illustrations to be used? Will there be a microphone, will the students be able to use it for practice before the event? Will there be a fixed time limit for their comments or presentation? Students must practise making legible notes on cards for use as reminders during their presentation. Speakers need to know the topic. 137  If they are to give a speech, they must anticipate possible questions and plan how to answer them.  If they are the chairperson of a discussion, they must talk with each participant and learn what type of information he/she has to offer and what role each is likely to play.  Debaters need to coordinate their presentation with their team members and anticipate the arguments of the opposing side. Delivering a Speech to Persuade In speaking to school officials and members of the community, students should:  Be formal, concise and well prepared.  Be very respectful to the audience but not too modest or apologetic.  Stick rigorously to the topic. In order to convince the listeners, the student should:  State a position with facts.  Give arguments to support their position.  Address any contrary opinions openly.  Restate their position firmly. Formal Meeting A chairperson follows the agenda and conducts the meeting in accordance with parliamentary procedure. Each participant must understand in advance the rules to be used for conducting the meeting, and be prepared to respect the chairperson’s direction. Contributors must stick to the topic, and listen attentively to the views of others. Agenda 1. Call to order by chairperson 138 2. Reading or distribution of the previous meeting minutes (official record kept by secretary). 3. Confirmation of minutes 4. Reports of various committees (small groups considering a problem) 5. Unfinished business from previous meetings 6. New business 7. Announcements 8. Adjournment by the chairperson Conduct of the Meeting  All remarks are addressed to the chairperson.  Decisions are made by motions (formal suggestions put before the group for consideration) e.g. “I move that we invite a member of parliament to speak at our next meeting”, followed by voting.  A motion requires a “seconder”, a person who agrees that this motion is a good idea. The seconder says, “I second the motion.”  During the discussion that follows, anyone wishing to speak raises his/her hand to address the chairperson.  When the discussion seems near an end, the chairperson will ask, “Is there any further discussion?” If not, voting follows.  Generally, motions are voted on by a show of hands. The chairperson votes only if there is a tie. Activities 1. Let students conduct a P.T.A. or any formal meeting of their choice. They will need to nominate; then elect a chairperson and secretary and to decide on committee/s and members thereof. 2. Divide the class in four and allow each group to field a team for or against two topics suggested by the students. Be a facilitator as students 139 prepare their case for or against. Stage the debates. Allow the other students to give their views on the conduct of the debates. 140 ENGLISH LANGUAGE Sample Lesson 1 Grade 9 TOPIC SPECIFIC PREVIOUS TEACHER STUDENTS’ TIME SUB-TOPIC OBJECTIVES CONTENT KNOWLEDGE ACTIVITY ACTIVITY RESOURSE EVALUATION 40/80 Written Examine Purposes Can 1. Shares 1. Receive Sample An expository min. Expression examples of of the construct out four samples and expository paragraph expository expository expository samples of designate a paragraphs has the order Expository paragraphs paragraph paragraphs paragraphs reader for each of facts that Paragraphs to identify that give to each sample. corresponds purpose and Order of information group of to its purpose order of the the facts or explain students. paragraph in the how paragraph something is (p.35) done or 2. Writes 2. Read each made the four paragraph, purposes identify its and asks purpose and students to examine it for the state the order of facts. order of the facts for each. 3. Listens to 3. Report their the reports findings and clear and up points of moderates misunderstanding the through discussion. discussion. 4. Gives an 4. Respond to the assignment. assignment given. ENGLISH LANGUAGE Sample Lesson 2 Grade 9 159 TOPIC SPECIFIC PREVIOUS TEACHER STUDENTS’ TIM SUB-TOPIC OBJECTIVES CONTENT KNOWLEDGE ACTIVITY ACTIVITY RESOURSE EVALUATION E 80 Written Develop Definition of Can 1. Defines 1. Listen Sample of a A paragraph min. Expression from a given a construct the classification that contains topic, a classification paragraphs classification paragraph a general Classification paragraph paragraph paragraph. statement Paragraphs that followed by classifies The 2. Presents 2. Listen supporting beginning the sample and sentences, statement paragraph answer and which and questions states the Supporting examines when types or the the general necessary subtypes beginning statement statement (p.37, 38) 3. Monitors 3. Read discussion the giving supporting guidance to sentences the and identify conclusions the types arrived at or subtypes 4. Gives a 4. Give science information related topic that for students classifies to write a the topic paragraph into its using the types or sample subtypes, paragraph then write model the paragraph 160 ENGLISH LANGUAGE Sample Lesson 3 Grade 9 TIME TOPIC SPECIFIC PREVIOUS TEACHER STUDENTS’ SUB-TOPIC OBJECTIVE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE ACTIVITY ACTIVITY RESOURSE EVALUATION 80 Narrative Plan a story Orientation Can write 1. Explains 1. Listen, ask Graphic The min. Writing using the Complication stories the questions and Organiser necessary Narrative Resolution relatively well organization respond to - Narrative detail for a Organisation Plan of the teacher Plan 1& 2 new story Language narrative (p. 50, 51) stated in the features and states sections of (p. 47, 48) what is A short the Narrative required for narrative Plan each part (p. 49) on the Narrative Plan. 2. Presents 2. Read the the story on story and p.49 and divide it into monitors its discussion organisational as it is parts. examined. 3. Asks 3. Respond students to by giving the state the setting, details in events, the involvement Narrative of characters, Plan. conflict and solution. 4. Have students 4. Plan story plot a story on Narrative on the plan Graphic Organiser. 161 ENGLISH LANGIAGE Sample Lesson 4 Grade 9 TOPIC SPECIFIC PREVIOUS TEACHER STUDENTS’ TIME SUB-TOPIC OBJECTIVES CONTENT KNOWLEDGE ACTIVITY ACTIVITY RESOURSE EVALUATION 40/80 Narrative Identify time Verb Students have 1. Reads a 1. Listen or Illustrations Correct min. Writing relationships tense read narratives short read if on p. 53 answers in a used for narrative. asked to. would Time narrative Comprehension A short indicate that Relationships Position of and for 2. Identifies 2. Listen narrative the time line story teller Literature, the tense and with of the events in time used and observe. questions was They have directs that understood. Referring: written attention to establish - To the narratives with the fact the time past in the all their that events line of the past features occurred at events - To the various future in times. the past N.B. (p. 53) 3. AsksThe them to 3. Comply grammar is select with incorporated events and request as the state time and composition is of establish taught. It occurrence time line of therefore in relation events. means that to the verb grammar is used taught less in isolation 4. Instructs students to 4.Respond read orally or in passage writing as and required answer question. ENGLISH LANGUAGE Sample Lesson 5 Grade 9 162 TOPIC SPECIFIC PREVIOUS TEACHER STUDENTS’ TIME SUB-TOPIC OBJECTIVES CONTENT KNOWLEDGE ACTIVITY ACTIVITY RESOURSE EVALUATION 40/80 min Expository Provide The use Naturally 1. Makes a 1. A sample An Writing evidence of present statement to Respond. of an argumentative that can be ‘evidence’ arguments initiate an argument paragraph Ways to used in a to when argument. that uses that has Persuade persuasive persuade expressing evidence to relevant and argument to views on 2. Uses support valid evidence support a issues argument to 2. Listen point of viewpoint establish the and view use of respond if ‘evidence’. necessary. 3. Have students pick 3. Read the out the argument evidence and identify used in an the argument. evidence used 4. Examines the validity of 4. Examine the validity of evidence. evidence. 5. Gives a topic and 5. Do as it asks is required. students to write the evidence to support their point of view. ENGLISH LANGUAGE Sample Lesson 6 Grade 9 TOPIC SPECIFIC PREVIOUS TEACHER STUDENTS’ TIM SUB-TOPIC OBJECTIVE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE ACTIVITY ACTIVITY RESOURSE EVALUATION E S 163 80 Exposi- Examine Types of They have 1. Writes 1. Listen Samples of Choice of min. tory the advertisements investigated the and advertisements place based Writing techniques the use of techniques respond on the used in Techniques: audio and and give when strongest Advertise- ads. - Exaggeration audio-visual examples required to appeal to ments - Exclamation advertisements of their do so services that Decide on & questions use in ads. meet needs an ad. that - Contrast is most 2. Puts 2. Read appealing several ads., state ads. on and identify chalkboard the for techniques students to used identify the technique used 3. Places 3. Examine students in all the ads. groups given to and uses a the group, theme for for the each techniques group. used and then 4. decide Distributes where they ads. would go E.g. A to do Wedding: business, Ads. for: Give -Caterer reasons for -Music, choice etc. ENGLISH LANGUAGE Sample Lesson 7 Grade 9 TOPIC SPECIFIC PREVIOUS TEACHER STUDENTS’ TIME SUB-TOPIC OBJECTIVES CONTENT KNOWLEDGE ACTIVTIY ACTIVITY RESOURSE EVALUATION 164 40/80 Expository Respond to Format Can write 1. Reviews 1. Listen and Sample A letter with min. Writing an business the format respond letter of the advertised Contents letters of the application appropriate Letter of job with a of letter business format and Application letter of letter information application necessary for 2. Asks for 2. Give an application the appropriate similarity answers between the business letter and letter of application 3. Monitors 3. Highlight the the discussion information about the given in contents of response to the body of the the advertisement application 4. Sets 4. Respond to assignment the for students advertisement to write an with a letter of application application in response to an advertised job ENGLISH LANGUAGE Sample Lesson 8 Grade 9 TOPIC SPECIFIC PREVIOUS TEACHER STUDENTS’ TIME SUB-TOPIC OBJECTIVES CONTENT KNOWLEDGE ACTIVITY ACTIVITY RESOURSE EVALUATION 165 40/80 Expository Research a Nature of a Can write 1.Instructs 1. Read the Sample Relevance of min. Writing topic and report simple students to report report the write a reports read the information Report social - Historical report noted during studies information the research report - Specific 2. Initiates 2. State examples and observations, and details monitors ask and - Time discussion answer order on the facts questions presented Purpose of in the first and opening concluding paragraph, paragraphs the middle and the closing paragraph 3. Gives a 3. Respond, title and and identify asks the areas students to they are not state the familiar with kind of information needed for the report. 4. Asks 4. Comply students to with request research the topic ENGLISH LANGUAGE Sample Lesson 9 Grade 9 TOPIC SPECIFIC PREVIOUS TEACHER STUDENTS’ TIME SUB-TOPIC OBJECTIVE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE ACTIVITY ACTIVITY RESOURCE EVALUATION 166 40/8 Comprehension Interpret Venn Students can 1. Introduces the 1. Listen to A table with Information 0 information diagrams compare lesson and gives know what statistical from data on a min on a Venn show the objects and learning is to be data Venn diagram Graphics diagram. similarity state their guidelines. done used to write a and differences paragraph to differences and 2. Tells of the show proper between similarities purpose of the under-standing two Venn diagram 2. Listen to and persons or and how it is gain new interpretation of objects used.. knowledge information about 4. Demonstrates presenting how to interpret information. information from the Venn 4. Ask diagram. questions for 5. Guides clarification students in a plotting a Venn diagram from information presented in a 5. Follow paragraph. information on 6. Sets an examples. assignment 6. Write the paragraph. 167 GLOSSARY Acronym word formed from initial letters or syllables of words in a phrase: Awol - (Absent without leave), Mu – (Medically unfit) Alliteration repetition of initial sounds of words to create a musical effect: “sunless sea”, “the weary, war-worn wanderer,” “the hunter home from the hill,” “dusty death” Audience the anticipated reader or readers of the composition Chronological order actions in composition arranged to the same time sequence in which they occurred, do occur or should occur Cloze passage a passage from which words are omitted at regular intervals (e. g. every tenth word) in all except the first and last sentences Conflict involves a clash of forces. The usual force pits the main character against an opposing force – another character or characters, society, nature or some persistent trait Controlled composition a composition in which students are required to insert given words in blanks Discussion committee a groups of four to six students with a leader and scribe. Each group discusses the topic, and reports to the class before the lesson ends. Figures of speech communicate through comparisons and associations. Common figures of speech are the simile, metaphor, alliteration. Metaphor conveys information in a non-literal way stating or implying that two things are similar – The book is a passport into exotic, unknown lands. 168 Onamatopoeia hiss, bang buzz are onamatopoeic e.g. A Tennyson wrote “The moan of doves in innumerable coves And murmuring of innumerable bees” Note the many m-sounds, o and es (z). Plot sequence of events that occur in a work of literature Prefix syllable that attaches to the beginning of a root to add or alter meaning: pre – in preview means “before”; de – devalue means “reduce”, mal – malfunction means “badly”. Root the root of a word provides its base or primary meaning. For example, the root of telegraphy is graph which means “write”; the root of amorphous is morph, which means “shape”. Setting the time and place in which a story occurs Simile two dissimilar things are said to be alike. The words ‘like’ or ‘as’ distinguish a simile from a metaphor: problems sprouting like weeds; a plot as complicated as an acrostic puzzle Spatial order descriptive details are arranged so that readers can follow the eye’s path. Suffix a syllable or sound that attaches to the end of a word to alter the word’s meaning, to change the word from one class to another or change the word’s form. The suffix –itis (“inflamed”) added to the root appendix creates the new word appendicitis, The suffix –ly changes the adjective sad to the adverb sadly. The suffix –ed changes the present tense verb call to the past tense called. 169 Theme the central idea or topic of discourse of a work, primarily a work of literature Topic sentence the topic sentence of a paragraph is the main idea developed. If a paragraph has no stated topic sentence, one should be clearly implied. REFERENCES 170 Benjamin Errol Integrated English for Secondary Schools Bk. 1 Caribbean Educational Publishers, Trinidad, 1991. Carter Bonnie The Rinehart Guide to Grammar and Usage 3rd ed. Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1993. Carr George A. Reading for Meaning Bk.4 University of London Press Ltd. Collins Gem English Dictionary Harper Collins Publishers; London, 1994. Dale Edgar Vocabulary Building Zaner-Bloser, Inc: 1986. Dawson Mildred A. Language for Daily Use Harcourt, Brace and World Inc: New York, 1965. Green Judith A. Strategies for Success Reading Steck-Vaughn Company, Texas,1987. Harmer Jeremy Teaching and Learning Grammar Longman: London, 1987. Mercer and Mercer Teaching Students with Learning Problems 3rd ed. Macmillan, New York, 1993. Narinesingh Roy Improving Comprehension Royards Educational Books, 1989. Peters Margaret The Teaching of Spelling in: Teaching Literacy and Balancing Perspectives Stroughton, London,1993. 171 Sesnan Barry How to Teach English Oxford University Press, New York, 1997. Williams D J. English Teaching in the Primary School Evan Brothers Limited, London, 1991. Exploring Lyric Poetry Scholastic Inc. Writer’s Choice Teacher’s Wraparound Edition 172