INVESTIGATIONS INTO DRY-SEASON TOMATO PRODUCTION 
IN TRINIDAD. 
(With a general review of the literature on tomato 
cultivation.) 
by 
W. F. K. CHRISTIAN, B. Sc. (Hons. Bot.) 
D.T.A . Report 
A report submitted in part requirement for the Diploma 
in Tropical Agriculture of the Imperial College of Tropical 
Agriculture, Trinidad, T.W.I. 
JUNE, 1958. 
C O N T E N T S .  
PAGE. 
INTRODUCTION 1 
REVIEW OF LITERATURE. 4 
1. Origin of the cultivated tomato 4 
2. Botany 5 
3. Climatic conditions of growth. 6 
(i) Temperature. 7 
(ii) Light intensity and Optimal Night and Day 
Temperature 8 
(iii) Light Intensity and Ascorbic Acid 
content of fruit. 8 
(iv) Rainfall 8 
4. Soil conditions. 9 
5. Fertilizers 9 
6. Starter solution 12 
7. Training and Pruning. 14 
8. Propagation and transplanting 16 
9. Methods of Cultivation 19 
10. Spacing in the Field 19 
11. Varieites and Horticultural Characters of tomatoes 20 
12. Hybrid vigour. 23 
13* Diseases and Pests. 23 
14. Fungal and bacterial diseases 23 
(i) Fusarium wilt 23 
(ii) Bacterial wilt 24 
(iii) Septoria leaf spot or blight 25 
(iv) Late blight. 25 
(v) Stemphylium or Gray leaf Spot. 26 
(vi) Early blight 26 
(vii) Tomato leaf mould. 27 
15. Virus Diseases 27 
(i) Tomato (tobadco) mosaic 28 
(ii) Cucumber mosaic 28 
(iii) Tomato spotted wilt, 
(iv) Single or Tomato Streak,, 
(v) Double or severe tomato Streak, 
(vi) Curly top 
(vii) Control of Virus diseases 
16. Fruit rots. 
Control of fruit rots. 
17. Physiological diseases. 
(i) Blossom-end rot 
(ii) Growth cracks 
(iii) Puffiness 
(iv) Sunscald 
18. Pests, 
(i) Ants. 
(ii) Millipedes 
(iii) Caterpillars, cutworms, fruitworms. 
(iv) Eelworms 
(v) Mites 
(vi) Aphids 
(vii) Leaf miner 
(viii) Midge 
19. Grading 
20. Packing for the market. 
21. Storage 
EXPERIMENT. 
1, Object of Experiment. 
2, Experimental details. 
3, Soil type 
4, Nursery Operations. 
5, Field Operations. 
(i) Transplanting. 
(ii) Moulding, weeding, fertilizing 
(iii) Pruning 
(iv) Staking 
Page* 
(v) Spraying 46 
(vi) Irrigation. 4-7 
6, General Observations in the Field, 47 
(i) Weed growth. 4-7 
(ii) Diseases 4-7 
7. Harvesting 49 
RESULTS 50 
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE. 53 
DISCUSSION 56 
SUMMARY 60 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 61 
APPENDICES ( I - IV) 62 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 68 
I N  T R O D U C T I O N .  
The tomato is one of the most popular as well as one of the most 
important vegetables in the tropics and temperate region. Rich in 
vitamin C and minerals especially phosphonis, potassium and calcium, and 
high in palatibility it is esteemed in various dishes0 In the tropics 
its increased consumption will go a long way in decreasing the many 
deficiency diseases found there. For most countries it is an important 
conmercial crop bringing in much needed revenue. 
Though a native of tropical Central America, the tomato has reached 
its maxinum production in temperate countries. In Britain the green house 
culture of the tomato new produces up to 60 tons per acre, the average 
yield being 35.0 tons per acre. This is about 2-g- times larger than the 
average yield of the outdoor crop produced in the U.S.A. 
In the U.S.A. the tomato ranks among the vegetable crops second 
only to the potato in farm value, and heads the list in value among the 
perishable vegetables. The average annual production and farm value for 
the crop grown for the fresh market for the period 1948-52 were 33,322 
million bushels and 5133,893 million respectively. For the same period 
the production and value of the crop for processing were 3,144,700 tons 
and 588,398 mil lion (Thompson and Kelly, 1957). 
Fresh tomatoes in South Africa brought to the farmers during 1952-53 
£1,310,000 on the nine principal markets of the Union. 
In Cuba and some of the islands in the Caribbean, principally 
Jamaica and the Bahamas, tomatoes are grown mainly for export to the U.S.A. 
during the winter and early spring when field production is not possible 
in most parts of the latter country. Montserrat ships its produce to 
Eastern Caribbean countries like Trinidad and British Guiana. Since the 
last war the former trade in fresh fruit between Canada and the British West 
Indian islands, Jamaica, Antigua, St. Kitts, Montserrat, Bahamas and 
Bermudas has stopped owing to lack of regular shipping. 
Other important tomato-grcwing countries are Mexico, Puerto Rico, 
the Canary Islands, and Hawaii. 
In../ 
2 
In the Canary Islands the crop is grcrvn mostly under irrigation 
and exported to Europe, the United Kingdom taking the greatest amount. 
Hawaii tomato cultivation has recently come very much to the fore and much 
scientific research has gone into it. The Mexican crop is exported to the 
U.S.A. 
In the tropics in general the tomato is grown mainly in the dry 
season, because high temperatures and continuous heavy rainfall during the 
wet season create conditions unsuitable for growth. Techniques of 
cultivation are backward and yields are low. Resistant varieties are not 
available and a large part of the crop is lost through diseases. Great 
improvement is therefore needed in the techniques of cultivation of this 
crop. 
For the past five years or more, based on the findings aft the John 
Iunes Horticultural Station that yields of tomatoes depend to some extent 
on methods of production of seedlings, experiments have been conducted at 
the I.C.T.A. into methods of raising seedlings with a view to improving on 
the existing local methods. Three methods have been compared: raising 
seedlings in 3" clay pots containing specially prepared composts; raising 
seedlings by the methods of the peasant farmers who sow nursery beds thickly 
with seed and do not thin out; and producing seedlings by the "improved" 
method at a spacing of 3" x 3" on open beds. The results have so far 
indicated that pot raised and "improved" seedlings are superior in yielding 
capacity than the "peasant" seedlings with the pot raised seedlings giving 
higher yields than the "improved" seedlings. 
Cultivation methods have also been investigated. Plants grown on 
ridges, on the flat and on the flat with subsequent moulding up have been 
compared. In most of the experiments ridged and moulded plants have 
out-yielded those grown on the flat. But there are as yet no clear cut, 
confirmed differences between ridged and moulded plants. 
The effect of Starter solution used in transplanting has also been 
probed into and found beneficial. 
In the experiment reported in this paper the intention was to confirm 
the effects on yields of the three cultural methods - planting on the flat, 
moulding and ridging - and also of pruning and staking. It was decided ../ 
- 3 
It was decided in raising the Seedlings and in transplanting to use 
methods which were within the means of the peasant farmer and were 
capable of giving high yields<, The seedlings were therefore raised at 
a spacing of 3" x 3" straight on open beds instead of in pots or in seed 
boxes prior to transplanting to a field nursery, and a starter solution 
was used during transplanting. 
4 
REVIEW OF LITERATURE, 
Origin of the cultivated tomato* 
The centre of origin of the genus Lycopersicon, to which the 
tomato belongs, is on the narrow west coast area of South America, between 
the Andes and the ocean, extending from the equator to about 30° South 
latitude, Where the cultivated forms of the genus evolved in this area 
is however a matter of dispute. Though it is widely believed that the 
centre of origin of the cultivated forms was in Peru, Jenkins (1948) 
adduces evidence to shew that Mexico was the centre of domestication of the 
tomato, Jenkins points out that in Mexico there is a widespread 
distribution, not found in Peru, of both wild and cultivated tomatoes and 
of many transitional forms between the wild and cultivated types and also 
between the cultivated types themselves. He also draws attention to the 
fact that the name tomato is derived from the Nahua word "tomatl" which 
in Mexico is applied to many different solanaceous plants including 
lycopersicon, Saracha and Physalis especially the latter which was and still 
is used as food in many parts of that country. Though the tomato had been 
called many names including the European one of "Pomi del Peru" Jenkins, in 
his investigation^ found nothing in the historical records to suggest a, 
Peruvian origin. 
Prom the results of his researches Jenkins has put forward the 
hypothesis that the putative variety cerasiforme of lycopersicon esculentum 
was the ancestor of the cultivated tomato. Originally confined to the 
Peru-Ecuador area, this variety spread in pre Columbian times as a weed 
throughout much of tropical America. In mexico owing to its general 
resemblance to the older food plant Physalis it was brought into cultivation. 
Prom Mexico the cultivated forms were taken to Europe soon after 
the Conquest by Cortez in 1534, In Europe the tomato was at first probably 
grown in the gardens of herbalists as a curious plant but soon found its 
way into potions and later became a relished article of food. According 
to Sturtevant (1919) and McCue (l952) the earliest mention of its use as 
sauce in Italy was by Matthiolus in 1544 in the first edition of his 
commentary on Dioscorides, 
5 
Before 1600, however, it was widely established as a vegetable in 
many European countries. 
From Europe the Spanish and the Portuguese took the tomato 
to Asia, the Pacific and Africa (Jenkins, 1948). 
As regards the introduction of the crop into the United 
States of America, Thompson and Kelly (1957) record that the first 
reference to the vise of tomato for culinary purposes in the United 
States was by Jefferson in 1781, although mention had been made of 
its presence in the Carolinas, Georgia and Florida earlier in the 
18th Century. 
Botany. 
The tomato, botanically known as Lycopersicon esculentum 
Mill, belongs to the family Solanacea (L). Cobley (1956) has 
given a botanical description of the plant, which is an annual or 
short lived perennial with weak trailing much branched stems covered 
with yellow glandular hairs as well as non-glandular ones. 
The fruit is a two - to- many - celled red or yellowish 
berry with a smooth skin. The seeds are many, small, hairy, 
kidney shaped and are borne on fleshy placentae in axile placentation. 
The red colouration of the fruit is dus to the presence of two 
pigments carotene and lycopersicon occurring in different 
concentrations and thus bringing about gradation in fruit colour. 
Both Muller (1940) and Luckwill (1943) have divided 
the genus Lycopersicon into two subgeneraj first, Eulycopersicon 
including the red fruited species L. esculentum and L. Pimpinelli 
folium; second, Eriopersicon, the green fruited species which 
according to Muller consist of the Species L. cheesmanii, 
L. peruvianum, L. hirsutum, and L. glandulosum. 
The red fruited group including all cultivated forms has 
a complex geographic distribution that has been greatly influenced 
by man. 
6 
The green fruited group contains no species of economic importance. 
L. pimpinelli folium, one of the two red-fruited species has a 
restricted range of distribution being confined to Peru, Ecuador, 
and the Galapagos Islands (MuLler, 1940). 
The variety Cerasiforme and the form pyriforme are 
considered by Muller as distinct entities within the species 
esculentum. 
Tomatoes may also be divided into determinate and 
indeterminate types according to the sequence of formation of 
flower clusters. Shoemaker (1949) has given the characteristics 
of the two types. Indeterminate plants are capable of continuing 
their growth more or less indefinitely. Normally a blossom cluster 
is produced at every 3rd internode, being separated by 3 leaves 
from the next flower cluster. Determinate varieties are free 
blooming. The blossom clusters are produced at every internode, 
thus being separated by only one leaf. The stem eventually terminates 
in a blossom cluster. 
Climatic Conditions of Growth. 
The tomato is mainly a crop for warm conditions, but 
may be grown in frost-free areas during the winter in temperate 
regions. To give maximum yields it requires a long growing 
period of 3^ - 5 months with moderately high temperatures, 
(Van HLommestein et al, 1954). High tenperatures coupled 
with high humidity, however, favour various fungus diseases, while 
hot drying winds often result in the dropping of the blossoms, 
(Thompson & Kelly, 1957). The tomato plant therefore" produces 
largest crops in cool dry regions under irrigation and also under 
the controlled conditions that obtain in a glass house. 
7 
Temperature. 
Work by many investigators has shown that temperature 
has a marked effect on the growth and setting of fruit of the 
tomato. Watts (1931), found that fruit set was greater at 75° 
than at 60°F. Moore and Thomas (1952), also found out that 
when the average maximum day temperature was above 90°F and the 
average minimum night temperature above 70°F fruit set was low. 
Went (1945), demonstrated that night temperature was actually 
the critical factor in the setting of fruit by tomatoes. Fruit 
set was abundant only at night temperatures between 15° - 20°C 
under which conditions stem elongation was also optimal. Less 
growth and much less fruiting occurred at either higher or lower 
night temperatures. This temperature effect, Went observed was 
much greater than that of the relative humidity of the air, length 
of day or day temperature. Went and Cosper (1945), found that 
in the field the effective low temperatures usually occurred 
around 30 days before maximum fruit production i.e. they coincided 
with the period of fruit setting. 
The effect of temperature on fruit production and 
growth of tomatoes has been attributed by Went (1945), to the 
direct effect of temperature on size of inflorescence and trans­
location of Sugars. Went in his investigations discovered that 
the size of the inflorescence varied very much with night termeratures. 
The warmer the night, the smaller the inflorescence and the flowers. 
It was only at night temperatures between 13° C and 22° C that 
fruits started to grow. At higher temperatures no fruit was set 
at all. Above 18° C night temperature, translocation of Sugars 
became limiting to the growth processes of the whole tomato plant. 
In varieties that Went studied he found thermo-periodicity 
responses to be consistent and large enough to characterise them. 
8 
light Intensity and Optimal Night and Day Temperatures. 
•When tomato plants are exposed to lover light intensities 
there is a shift towards lower optimal day and night temperatures. 
(Went, 1945). Growth of plants at reduced light intensity and 
high night temperatures (26° - 30° C) was very small, while at 
low night temperatures reduced light had no effect. Hoffman in 
1938 obtained similar results in Ohio with plants grown in a glass 
house during the spring. He found that the best day temperature 
for Globe tomatoes was 18° C on cloudy days and 21° - 24° C on 
Sunny days. 
light Intensity and Ascorbic Acid content of Fruit. 
Of the factors day length, light intensity, temperature, 
fertiliser, Soil type, and humidity, Hammer et al (1945), have 
shown that light intensity previous to harvest has the greatest 
influence on the ascorbic acid content of the fruit. Under low 
light intensities the ascorbic acid content is much lower than 
under high light intensities. Increases in the ripe fruit of 
66# in ascorbic acid resulted when plants were transferred from 
shade to sunshine at the time the fruit was mature - green. Hammer 
and his co-workers suggest that much of the effect on ascorbic acid 
content ascribed to season and location may be due to variations in 
light intensity. 
Rainfall. 
This is important only for the out door crop. In 
Trinidad (Rombulow-Pearse, 1953) and generally throughout the 
tropics tomatoes are mainly grown during the dry season usually 
with irrigation. Excessive rain increases the incidence of 
disease, destroys newly formed blossoms and according to Young 
and Mac Arthur (1947), decreases pollination to cause puffed 
fruits, which contain air spaces in locules incompletely filled 
9 
with seeds. 
Soil Conditions• 
Many types of soils ranging from sands to clays have 
been found suitable for the cultivation of tomatoes. 66$ of 
the entire crop of Peninsula Florida is gram on sandy soils vhich 
are either acid or caleareous, (Spencer, et al. 1955). Hardy 
and Baker (1952) found tomatoes growing satisfactorily on the 
highly calcareous black, marly rendzinas of the swash-land in 
Andros Island. Loamy soils are however preferred for growing 
tomatoes. 
It is agreed by most workers that a well-drained soil 
is essential for high production. A gradual slope facilitates 
irrigation and in general provides excellent drainage. Van 
HLommestein et al, (1954), state that provided the drainage is 
good the depth of soil below 18" is of less importance. 
The tomato has been said to be tolerant of acid soil 
conditions. Excessively acid soils should however be limed to 
reduce acidity and create more favourable conditions for the soil 
bacteria and decomposing organic matter. Sayre (1947), reported 
an increase of 4.2 tons of fruit per acre from an application of 
3 tons of dolomitic limestone to the acre on Fulton loam soil of 
pH 4.8. Spencer et al (1955) recommended a pH value between 
5.5 and 6.0 for tana toes grown on sandy soils, and at pH values 
above 6.0 advised no liming but a constant watch for possible trace 
element deficiency symptoms. 
Fertilizers• 
Although animal manures are used to fertilise the soil 
for tomatoes, artificial fertilizers, especially nitrogen, play a 
greater role in tomato culture. 
10 
Hie amount of nitrogen per acre used by many growers has however varied 
betvreen very wide limits, and the same amount of nitrogen used in 
different areas has also been known to give different results. It 
has also been shown by Kraus and Kraybill (I9I8), that over 
fertilisation with nitrogen causes the plant to be vegetative and 
produce little fruit. 
In a review of soil practices with some outstanding crops 
in New Jersey, Hester (1940), observed that the amount of Nitrogen 
used by certain growers varied from practically none to 140 pounds 
per acre and also that in certain c ases where different growers used 
an equal amount of nitrogen, namely 75 lbs. per acre, a tremendous 
variation in yield from less than 5 tons to nearly 15 tons per acre 
was obtained. 
While other factors influence the yield of tomatoes, the 
indication of the above results was that response to fertilizer might 
depend on the time and method of application. 
Hester (1938), and Hester et al (1951) doing chemical analyses 
of tomato plants at monthly intervals showed that a large portion of 
nutrients is absorbed by the plants between the 2nd and 3rd months 
after transplanting in the field and that the nutrients absorbed in the 
largest quantities are potash, nitrogen, and calcium. Hester 
considers it desirable, therefore, to apply part of the fertilizer 
before the plants are set out and the remaining part later, 
Hester (1941), found on Sassafras fine sandy loam that the 
use of nitrogen and potash in two side dressings was more efficient than 
either mixing the fertilizer in the soil in the rcw before planting or 
broadcasting and ploughing down later, Hester however quotes the 
unpublished results of experiments in the middle West States as giving 
indication that broadcast application and ploughing down on heavy soils 
of various sources of nitrogen as being the most efficient of all methods 
tried. Jones and Warren (1954) also compared various methods of 
placement of phosphorus and found that deep placement under the row was 
more efficient than banding beside the plants or broadcasting. 
11 
Though opinion on the most beneficial feitilizer to the tomato 
crop is somewhat divided many experiments have indicated that depending on 
soil type, nitrogen and phosphorus would appear to be the most important 
fertilizers to the crop and potash probably the least since the element is 
often not very much lacking in soils. 
The use of 100 pounds nitrogen per acre on a Coto clay soil in 
Puerto Rico gave significantly higher yields of commercial tomatoes per acre, 
than either none or 200 pounds nitrogen per acre, (Landrau and Samuel, 1955). 
Increased yields were also obtained on the same soil with phosphate fertilizers, 
the highest yields beiig obtained with 200 pounds of Pg O5 per acre. There 
was no response to potash on this soil. 
Miller (1954) working on the effects of various fertilizer mixtures 
on the yield and growth of tomatoes found that a couplete mixture of NPK used 
at 14 cwts. per acre produced the highest yields and the best vegetative 
growth. A f ertilizer mixture containing only phosphorus and nitrogen had 
about the same effect as the couplete mixture, while a mixture containing 
phosphorus and potassium gave the most unthrifty growth and the lowest yields. 
Miller observed that the absence of nitrogen in a fertilizer mixture caused a 
marked reduction in grcwth rate while a coirplete mixture containing potassium 
lengthened the period of growth. 
Chin (1932) found super phosphate and sulphate of potash at 200 lb. 
per acre depressed yields of the Marglobe variety while Ammonium Sulphate at 
200 lb. per acre definitely increased yields by about 1.2 tons. 
Results of long continued experiments in Pennsylvania conducted by 
Warren et al, (1940) also shewed that the greatest yields were always obtained 
using a complete fertilizer and that as the phosphorus content of the fertilizer 
increased, yields also increased. 
Fhosphorus it was found was more effective in increasing yields than 
either nitrogen or potassium. 
Organic manure from various sources has been found on many occasions 
to increase yields of tomatoes. In the Pennsylvania experiments (Warren et 
al, 1940 ) 20 - 40 tons of well rotted farm yard manure were found superior to 
any commercial fertilizer mixture tried. 
12 
In Puerto Rico Lardrau et al (1955) obtained significant increases in yields 
when they used fitter press cake, and organic product of the Sugar mills 
averaging about 2,5# Na and Pg 05 at 20 tons per acre. When combined 
with 100 pounds of nitrogen and 200 pounds of Pg Og per acre the yields 
obtained were higher than those obtained when the fitter press cake or 
chemical fertilizer was used alone. Cotton seed meal has also been found 
effective as fertilizer in Montserrat, (Campbell, 1957). Dried blood is 
also sometimes used as fertilizer especially in green house tomato culture 
(Allerton, 1954). On Andros Island, Bahamas, Hardy and Baker (1952) found 
"MUorganite" an American Sewage product containing 6-8% Nitrogen and 
Z - 6% a vailable phosphate being used with success in combination with inorganic 
fertilizers• 
Fertilizer mixtures recommended for use on tomatoes vary in 
composition according to soil type. Thompson and Kelly (1957) recommerd 
It 2: 1 and lj 2; 2 mixtures for use on lighter soils where tomatoes are 
grown in rotation with other cultivated crops. For loam, silt loam, and 
clay loam soils where also the crop is grown in dotation with field crops 
they recommend mixtures of It 3: 1 and lj 4: 1. The Florida Agricultural 
Service recommends for lighter soils a ratio of 4: 7j 5 and 4: 8: 8. 
Patterson (1932) suggests a mixture of one part nitrate of soda to two parts of 
superphosphate and one part of muriate of potash applied at the rate of 500 lbs 
per acre in field dressing before transplanting. A f urther 600 lbs should be 
applied later as side dressing. 
Starter Solution. 
In the United States and in Europe it has long been a common 
practice among growers to transplant tomatoes with from \ to 1 pint of solution 
of sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda in water. 
Baker working in Northern Indiana in 1937 reported increased yields 
of tomatoes and earlier ripening where commercial phosphoric acid and mono-
ammonium phosphate were used in the transplanting water. Grace (1937) reported 
better results from very minute quantities of hormones in the transplanting 
water and stated that with tomato seedlings increased growth was obtained with 
naphthylacetic acid at a rate corresponding to 200 mLlli grams per acre. 
13 
Sayre (1938) confirmed Baker's results and obtained significant increases 
in yields with Ammonium phosphate and nitrate of potash in the transplanting 
water. He also found that the mono-ammonium phosphate was a significantly 
more effective form of phosphorus than the ortho-phosphoric acid in 
stimulatirig plant growth; also that the use of small amounts of borax, 
manganese sulphate and magnesium sulphate in the transplanting water did not 
increase yields. As regards the effect of hormones on growth of tomatoes 
Sayre found contrary to the results of Grace that hormone had a depressing 
effect on yields, particularly the early yields. 
In later investigations Sayre (1939) found that a mixture of two 
parts of Ammonium phosphate and one part nitrate of potash was as effective 
and less expensive than any other combinations of chemicals he tried, Sayre 
also discovered that increasing the concentration and reducing the amount of 
solution per plant increased the effectiveness of the nutrient solution. These 
findings have been corroborated by work done by Tremeer (1956) and Fenwicfc 
(1957) at the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture. These workers obtained 
increased growth rate, early flowering and increased yields with starter 
solutions containing 2 parts of Ammonium phosphate and one part nitrate of 
potash. Fenwich comparing two levels of Starter Solution also found that, 
the solution applied at the rate of J pint per plant in a more concentrated 
form was more effective in increasing yields than that applied diluted at \ 
pint per plant. Porte (1952) however finds the use of starter solution 
unnecessary where fertilizer has been placed in the rows before planting. 
The principal effect of a Starter Solution used in transplanting 
tomatoes is to enable the plant to become established quickly. This results 
in a marked gain in early maturity. Sayre (1939) was of 1he opinion that the 
entire nutrient solution being in immediate contact with the roots and in a 
concentration sufficient to saturate the fixing capacity of the soil, was 
readily available to the roots just at the critical time of transplanting. 
A s mall amount of concentrated solution was more effective because it resulted 
in less puddling of the soil around the plant with less cracking as the soil 
dried. 
14 
Training and Pruning, 
In many tomato growing countries training and pruning tomatoes is 
a common practice. Various methods of training are employed. The pole or 
stake method is however the commonest used both for the green house and outdoor 
crops. In this system a strong stake 5-7 feet high is set securely 
alongside each plant soon after the first blossoms appear. The plant is tied 
to the stake with soft twine (Thompson and Kelly, 1957), rag string, hemp or 
raffia (Hieronymus, 1949) Allerton (1954), looped around the plant and tied 
around the stake. The tying is continued up the stake as the plant grows 
taller. Where the crop is gram in double rows the stakes may be slanted to 
meet in wigwam formation at the top where a strong tie is made, (Allerton 1954), 
This method is particularly suitable for exposed fields which cannot be 
adequately sheltered artifically. The plants instead of stakes may be 
supported by heavy twine running from the base of the plant to an overhead 
attachment. 
Pruning is done by removing either by hand or with a knife the 
new s hoots that appear in the leaf axils once every week or ten days. The 
plant is most commonly pruned to a single stem but there are growers who 
prefer to have two or three stem plants. 
Other methods of trellising are nearly always more elaborate than 
the stake method described above. In Hawaii the determinate varieties which 
trail on the ground are supported on low racks 12-15 ins. high at the back 
and sloping to ground level towards the plants, (Hieronymus, 1949), In South 
Africa several methods are in use. In one method described by Van 
HLommestein, (1954) 2-4 Spanish reeds or stakes are erected in a tripod 
formation around each plant. In another method, also described by Van 
Blommestein, 2-4 wires one above the other are stretched along light stakes 
and plants tied to them. In a modification of this method pairs of parallel 
wires are stretched so that the plants are kept upright between them. This 
method apparently is also used in New Zealand (Atkinson et al, 1949), 
15 
Thou# there seems to be no agreement as to the value of staking 
and pruning, the following advantages as summarised by Deorrieret al (1944) 
are usually claimed for this treatment: 
(1) Earlier ripening. 
(2) Larger fruits. 
(5) Less disease injury. 
(4) Larger early yields. 
(5) Cleaner fruit. 
(6) More convenient harvesting. 
(7) Greater convenience for spraying 
The disadvantages usually set against the advantages are, (Deonier et al 1944) 
(1) Greater amount of labour and expense, 
(2) Less total yield per acre, 
(3) Greater loss from blossom end rot, 
(4) More sunburn injury to the fruit, 
(5) Greater number of cracked fruits. 
The apparent conflicting results reported by many workers were 
probably due mainly to the use of less space or more plants per acre for the 
pruning and staking practices as compared to the untreated plots, and 
probably also to the wide variations in environmental conditions under which 
the different trials were conducted. From the results of many experiments, 
however, it would appear that pruning and staking increase early yields but 
bring about reduction in total yields. (Thompson, 1934j Hawthorne, 1939; 
Currence, 1941; Magruder, 1924; Walker, 1927). 
Thnmpson (1934) and Hawthorne (1939) attributed the increase in 
early yields caused by pruning and staking to the increased number of pruned 
plants per acre, the result of the closer spacing usually adopted for this 
treatment. Topper, however, in 1942 obtained at I.C.T.A. greater yields for 
staked and pruned plants when compared with unstaked and unpruned plants, at 
the same spacings, these being 2* x 3', if' x 3', and V x 3' • Results of 
experiments conducted in Mississippi and reported by Deonier et al (1944) also 
indicate a decided advantage for staking with pruning, and no advantage for 
staking without pruning over no staking and no pruning. 
16 
Riollano (1944), however, working in Puerto Rico found staking reduced 
consistently and significantly yields of all grades of fruit when compared 
with unstated treatments. Staking however improved percentage of marketable 
fruit but this was offset by the marked reduction in yield of marketable fruit. 
The combination of staking and pruning, Riollano found, reduced yields further 
in a significant way. Styrdom (1955) in South Aftica also found staking with 
pruning to have on yields adverse effects which were more noticeable at closer 
spacings. Pruning also retarded ripening and did not produce an earlier 
crop. 
Conflicting results of pruning and staking may also follow, 
according to Currence (1941), when different varieties of tomatoes are 
subjected to pruning and training. Currence found that pruning was beneficial 
to the Break-O'Day variety and detrimental to the determinate Pritchard. 
The fact that the incidence of the two physiological diseases,blossom 
end rot and fruit cracking is often more severe on pruned trained plants and 
also under dry and wet conditions indicates that pruned, trained plants either 
enable the soil to dry out more quickly or are unable to use soil moisture 
as well as unpruned plants. Studies by Thompson (1927) suggest that both 
these factors are probably involved. 
Propagation and transplanting. 
Tomato seedlings for transplanting can be raised by one of two 
methods. For the green house crop the seedlings are raised in soil blocks 
or clay, paper or plastic pots filled with specially composted soils. The 
seedlings are later transplanted to the field with a ball of soil. In the 
second method which is mostly adopted in the U.S.A. and in the tropics, seeds 
are raised on open beds and later transplanted with bare roots to the field. 
In the tropics the peasant farmer sows seeds thickly on the open 
bed and usually fails to thin out, thus producing seedlings which are over 
crowded, have sparse foliage and roots , and look spindly and weak. 
The methods for the propagation of seedlings in the U.S.A. have 
been outlined by Porte (1952) . In areas where the growing season is long 
seedlings are raised in cold frames or open beds, at a spacing of 12" - 15" 
between rows and 1" - 2" between plants in the row. Where the growing season 
is short and where also earliness is important the seeds are sown in 
17 
green hotees or hotbeds and the seedlings are later transplanted to a wider 
spacing in hot beds or in cold frames. 
Direct seeding in the field is also carried out in the U.S.A. 
Hie seed is machine drilled in rows 15" - 18" apart at a rate which gives 15 -
18 plants per foot of row. Hiese are later thinned out to the required 
spacing. This method is applicable only in places like California, Nevada 
and parts of Florida where frost is not a hazard and normal soil temperatures 
are suitable. It has the advantage of saving labour, of transplanting and 
often reduces loss from damping off. In Trinidad and possibly in other parts 
of the Tropics, direct seeding may prove a complete failure. Rombulow- Pearse 
(1953) in Experiments at the I.C.T.A. found it difficult to establish plots by 
directly seeding in the field because the soil tended to bake hard and ants 
carried the seeds away. 
Where direct seeding in the field has not been done tomato seedlings 
raised in pots or on open beds are eventually transplanted into the field. 
Experimental results reported by Loomis (1925) indicate that transplanting does 
not directly promote the growth of the plant and is of no particular agronomic 
value, but may be an economic expedient in saving valuable green house or 
garden space and in allowing for better care of slowly growing seedlings. In 
the early seedling stage tomato seedlings can be transplanted with little or no 
injury. With increasing maturity hcwever the danger of injury increases. 
This is in agreement with the results of Casseres (1947), (Babb 1940), Brasher 
and Westover (1937) and Porter (1935) which show that young plants that are 
tender and capable of quick growth resumption after field setting give early 
and large total yields. Any treatment of the seedlings which results in 
hardening reduces the early and total yields in proportion to the degree of 
hardening. In this connection Casseres for plants grown at 60 - 70°F ohtained 
results in which 7 week old seedlings significantly produced higher early and 
and total yields than seedlings 11 weeks old. Under tte warmer conditions in 
Trinidad 4 weeks old seedlings are considered ideal for transplanting 
(Rombulow-Pearse, 1953; Barett I955j Hremeer, 1956; Fenwick, 1957). 
Yields of tomatoes are known to depend very much on the way the 
seedlings are raised and the treatment given to them. 
18 
Working at the John Lunes Horticultural Institute, Lawrence (1950) was 
able to show that the quality of compost used in the pots, the time of 
pinching out young seedlings from seed boxes to the pots, the size of the 
pot and hence the spacing between plants, all affected early and total 
yields. 
Work and Amy (1950) found that plants grown in beds and 
thinned to a spacing of 2" x 2" or 3 or 4 seedlings per inch gave 
significantly higher yields than plants from overcrowded beds. Similar 
results were obtained by Smitii (1954), Barett (1955), Treemeer (1956), 
Fenwich (1957) working at I.C.T.A. fliey found that "improved" seedlings 
i.e. seedlings raised on the open bed at a spacing of 3" x 3" gave higher 
yields and necessitated less supplying than the overcrowded seedlings raised 
by the methods of the peasant farmer. 
Pot raised seedlings are considered superior to seedlings 
produced in the open bed. Nylund (1956) reported results in which 
transplants grown in 3-inch pots outyielded those grown on flat open beds 
at 2" x 2". Snyder showed that seedlings in pots of this size may even 
outyield seedlings grown at a spacing of 4" x 4" on flat beds. Experiments 
at I.C.T.A. have also shown that seedlings raised in pots yield better than 
those produced on beds (Treemeer 1956, Fenwick 1957). 
Bie increased yields and better field establishment given by 
pot raised seedlings and seedlings produced at a wide spacing on open beds 
have been attributed to better root and foliage development. At the I.C.T.A. 
Smith (1954) Treemeer, (1956), Fenwick (1957) found that pot raised and 
"improved" seedlings had well developed roots and leaves while seedlings 
raised on overcrowded beds had hardly any roots and leaves. Loomis (1925) 
also considered the high yields obtained from seedlings raised in pots to be 
due to the well developed roots and luxuriant foliage of the seedlings. 
I 
When these well developed seedlings are set in the field they are less subject 
to mechanical injury, to disease and insect attack, and to destruction 
through drought. 
19 
Methods of Cultivation. 
Field tomatoes may be transplanted on ridges or on the level 
and earthed up later when found necessary. In Puerto Rico level or flat 
planting with irrigation is favoured during the dry season while on heavy 
soils during the rainy season ridge planting is considered best, (Childers 
et al 1950.) In Ceylon planting on ridges in wet districts and on the 
flat with subsequent moulding up in dry areas is also practised, 
(Senaratire and Senathiraja, 1927). In the Canaries tomatoes are grown 
only on ridges, (Holmes, 1931), In Trinidad the peasant farmer who 
grows tomatoes mainly in the dry season xisually plants on the level and 
earths up later. (Rumbulow-Pearse 1953). Experiments at the I.C.T.A. 
have demonstrated that plants grown on ridges and on the flat with subsequent 
moulding up give higher yields than those planted on the level and not 
earthed up, (Barett, 1955; Fenwick 1957; Smith, 1954). 
The spacing given to plants in the field varies greatly 
according to variety grown, methods of cultivation, and whether the plants 
are pruned and staked or allowed to trail over the soil. Many experiments 
conducted on field spacing have, however, shown that close spacing results 
in larger yields than wider spacing. 
Currence (1941) working in Minnesota reported results in which 
closer spacings uniformly increased yields which reached a maximum at a 
spacing of 1' x 4'. There was a tendency to smaller fruits at the closer 
spacings but the tendency was not uniform and definite enough to show 
significance. Reeve and Schmidt (1952) also obtained higher total yields 
from plants given 7 square feet of space than those given greater space. 
Similar results have been obtained in St. Kitts, and Antigua. In St. Kitts 
(Anon. 1931) a spacing of 4* x 2» gave yields significantly better than 
4' x 3», and in Antigua ( Anon. 1949) higher yields were obtained at a 
spacing of 3* x 1' than at 3' x 2'. 
20 
Large-growing spreading varieties require more room than small-
growing ones. Spacing for the spreading varieties should however not be 
so large as to reduce yields. Where large mechanical equipment is used 
for spraying and dusting wide spacing is also required. In the U.S.A. 
a compromise is reached by having rows 4- - 5 or more feet apart and setting 
the plants close in the rows. (Thompson and Kelly, 1957). 
Staked and pruned plants are usually planted at closer spacing 
than unstaked and unpruned plaits. (See also training and pruning). 
Varieties a^d Horticultural Gh racters of Tomatoes. 
Tomato exists in many distinct varieties and in numerous strains, 
and selections of the varieties. The choice of any particular variety for 
growing depends on soil type, climate, length of growing season of the area 
or whether an early crop is desired or whether the crop is being produced for 
processing. The ideal variety for any region should, however, combine 
most of the desirable characters including prolific fruiting habit, 
production <Sf early fruits, large spherical fruits, large upright stems 
and immunity or resistance to disease and pests. 
Many of the characters of tomato have a genie basi,s, while others 
are polygenic and cannot be identified with any particular gene. Of the 
horticultural characters of tomatoes, Young and Mac Arthur (194-7) list 4-9 
that may be designated by genie symbols and more than 60 others which are 
polygenic and cannot be so designated. 
Among the pairs of characters which show a simple dominance and 
and F2 segregation of 3 : 1 are large and small numbers of locules, normal 
and fasciated fruits, nipple tip and normal fruit, globe and pear shapes, 
tall and dwarf plants, (Boswell, 1937); elongated and short fruits, 
(Lindstrom, 1927): and determinate and indeterminate habits, (Mac Arthur 
1952; Boswell 1937). 
According to Butler (194-1) and Mac Arthur (1930) size of fruit and 
earliness of fruit maturity are quantitative characters, (Boswell, 1937; 
Currence, 1933), size of fruit depends on 3 - 5 pairs of major genes affecting 
locule members and twice as many genes affecting mature locule sizes. Boswell 
(1937) states that there is intermediate segregation for fruit size in the 
F-| generation and all gradations in the F2, 
— 21 — 
The concentration of vitamin C. (ascorbic acid) in tomato is inherited 
(Young and Mac Arthur, 1947), but the range in concentration with each 
variety may vary with differences in growing conditions especially exposure 
to sunlight (Kaclinn and Fellers, 1938; see also light intensity and 
ascorbic acid content of fruit). 
In the development of tomato varieties Lycopersicon esculentum 
has been crossed with other species of tomatoes especially the wild types 
to add genes that give the hybrids resistance to disease and other desirable 
characters# In Hawaii Lycopersicon pimpinellifolium was used to confer 
triple resistance to the diseases fusarium wilt, spotted wilt, gray leaf 
spot on seven new varieties, (Frazier et al, 1950)# In Texas vigorous 
hybrids secured from crosses involving L. esculentum, L. peruvianum, 
% 
L. hirsutum, L. glandulosum, have played a great part in the improvemement 
of commercial varieties of tomatoes. 
Of the varieties grown in Britain, Allerton (1954) mentions the 
following as the best known: Potentate, Ailsa Craig, Harbinger, ESI and 
ES5, the Stoner varieties; Money maker, Exhibition, Xlay Vanguard, M.P., 
Prolific which are characterized by the conspicuous pale-green fruit with 
very even colouring to a light red. For the out door crop Carter's Sunrise 
and Devon Surprise are preferred in Jersey but Ibbitts seedling, Money Maker, 
Harbinger, Market King are widely grown. 
Potentate is an excellent variety, which does well under 
practically all conditions except poor soils. It has a weak root system 
which limits rank growth. It produces heavy lower trusses of 15 - 20 fruits 
and may be used for early production. It has, however, the tendency to 
produce small middle trusses due to much dropping of flowers. 
After Potentate, Craig is the most widely grown variety in Britain. 
Possessing an extensive root system it grows well with good culture under a 
wide range of roil conditions. It prefers, however, hot well drained soils. 
Its trusses are elongated, branched and the two-celled fruit is medium in 
size and colours well. It is not suitable for early work. 
South African varieties described by Van Blommestein et al (1954) 
include Marvel, Rutgers, Hortus 5, San Malzano, Low Veld, Gold Mine, Indiana, 
Great Baltimore and selections of Pearson. 
22 
Marvel combines a relatively high resistance to Fusarium wilt 
with a high keeping quality and is regarded as the most suitable variety 
where production on the low veld takes place after August and before April. 
It is relatively early. 
Frazier et al (1950) working in Hawaii have produced seven new 
varieties of tomatoes all resistant in varying degrees to spotted wilt, 
fusarium wilt, and gray leaf spot. Of these Rihau is indeterminate and of 
medium maturity. The remaining Six which are Oahu, Lanai, Hawaii, Maui, 
Molokai, and Kauai are all determinate. Oahu is distinctly early preferring 
highly fertile soils and low elevations in the Summer while Kauai is a 
medium - early plant well adapted to staking and pruning. Lanai, Hawaii, 
Maui, Molokai are all medium early plants well adapted to low elevations in 
Winter, to medium elevations at all seasons and to high elevations in 
Summer. 
In the U.S.A. the varieties Marglobe, Rutgers, Indiana Baltimore, 
Greater Baltimore, Pearson, Stone, San Manzano which require a long time to 
mature, account for a large part of the main crop production of tomatoes, 
(Thompson & Kelly, 1957). 
Marglobe is a thick stemmed determinate variety with a high 
yielding capacity (Young and Mac Arthur, 1947). It is resistant to 
fusarium wilt but is susceptible to fruit puffing. Rutgers is similar to 
Marglobe but is less fruitful. It is the most important variety grown for 
processing in New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland and is an important market 
variety in several regions, including some of the Southern States, 
(Thompson & Kelly, 1957). 
Other important varieties include Earliana Victor and Bounty which 
were developed for regions having a very short growing season, Pritchard, 
a determinate and very fruitful variety and Globe which yields smooth, 
globular, large, pink fruits abundantly. 
A new outstanding variety produced and called Manalucie by the 
Florida Agricultural Experimental Station has been reported by Walter and 
Kelbert (1953). it is claimed that Manalucie does not only yield 
outstandingly large crops, but is most pleasingly palatable and is 
resistant to both concentric and radial cracking, blossom end rot, 
23 
Fusarium wilt, Stemphyllium wilt, early blight, leaf mould and the root-knot 
eel worm M eloidogyne Spp. It is however not resistant to tobacco mosaic 
and the soil borne diseases; Southern bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas 
Solanacearum E.F. Sm), Damping-off (Pythium Sp# and Pellicularia 
filamentosa (Pat), Rogers) and Southern blight (Pellicularia rotfsii 
(Sacc#) West)# 
Hybrid Vigoiir# -
First generation hybrids of tomatoes which show qualities beyond 
those of the parents are gradually coming into use. The process of 
producing these hybrids is laborius and expensive as successive crops raised 
from the Fj[ hybrids give rise to progressively less desirable types and the 
crosses must be carried out each season from the same true line parents to 
obtain fresh first generation seed, (Young and Mac Arthur, 1947)# 
Diseases and Pests# 
Where-ever tomatoes are grown they are subject to diseases and 
pests which because of their serious effect on yield and market value, are 
a major factor in crop production. In Hawaii it is estimated that 20# of the 
yearly value of "the crop is lost through foliage diseases alone, (Hendrix et 
al 1950)# In the tropics in general where resistant varieties are rarely 
used a very great proportion of the crop is lost through diseases. 
The diseases affect all parts of the plant-roots, leaves, stems and 
fruits# The most important diseases are probably fusarium wilt, bacterial 
wilt, bacterial canket, early blight, late blight, Septoria leaf spot, 
Stemphylium or grey leaf spot, leaf mould, anthracnose and virus diseases# 
Of the pests the red spider mite, caterpillars, root knot eelworms and 
serpentine miners are the most serious# 
Pungal and bacterial diseases• 
Fusarium wilt# 
Fusarium wilt caused by the fungus Fusarium Qxysporium, f# 
Lycopersici (Sacc#) Snyder and Hausen, is by far the most serious wilt disease 
of tomatoes# 
24 
» 
It is most prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions of the world where 
according to Clayton, (1923) it is favoured by optimum air and soil temperatures 
of 20°C and 27°C respectively. In Trinidad the disease may lead to a total 
failure of -the crop planted any time of the year, (Briandt, 1952). In 
Bermuda, a more northerly country, the disease is stated by Russel (1936) to 
be only serious during the period July to December when the mean daily maximum 
shade temperature ranges from 74°F to 80°F. 
Hie fungus is capable of living in the soil for a number of 
years, even in the absence of the host. According to Edgerton and Moreland 
(1920) it is favoured by acid soils and may be ijiade less serious in such soils 
by liming. 
Symptoms of the disease are fully described by Briandt (1932). 
In a severe attack the leaves wilt progressively starting with those at the 
base of the plant. The fungus enters the plant through the roots and quickly 
invades the wood vessels imparting a brownish-yellow discoloration to them. 
The disease may be controlled by sterilizing the soil with 
formalin or steam where practicable, by employing a rotation which does not 
permit a susceptible crop e.g. egg plant, tomatoes to be grown on the same 
land more than once in three or four years, and by observing strict hygiene. 
Various varieties resistant to Fusarium wilt are known. These 
include Marglobe, Rutgers, Indiana Baltimore, Pritchard, which are mentioned 
by Thompson and Kelly, (1957) and the seven new Hawaiian varieties described by 
Frazier et al, (1950). 
Bacterial Wilt. 
This disease is caused by Pseudomonas Solanacearum EF. Sm. which 
lives in the soil and infects the plant through the roots, (Briandt 1932, 
Thompson and Kelly, 1957). The pathogen occurs in cooler regions but flourishes 
in warmer climates. Briandt recorded it in 1932 as occuring in Trinidad. 
Affected plants usually wilt suddenly and completely without preliminary 
yellowing or browning of the leaves (Briandt 1932). 
A method of controlling the disease suggested by Doolittle (1948) 
is by adopting a rotation in which tomatoes are grown once in 4 or 5 years 
and in which also such crops as tobacco, potatoes, egg plant or peppers 
susceptible to the disease are not grown during the interval. 
25 
Field sanitation is also important. 
Septoria leaf spot or blight. 
This disease is caused by Septoria lycopersici Speg. An 
account of it has been given by Briandt (1932), Atkinson et at (1949), 
Thompson & Kelly, (1957). The disease is widely distributed in tomato 
growing countries being serious in the Atlantic and Western States of the 
U.S.A. and the area around Buenos Aires. 
The first symptoms of the disease appear on ihe leaves and consist 
of numerous small, brown, water soaked spots, the centres of whi.ch later 
turn grayish white surrounded by darker margins. In severe cases the leaves 
wilt and drop off resulting in serious defoliation. In Trinidad the disease 
is not serious enough to cause defoliation, (Briandt, 1932). 
In America, Pritchard and Porte, (1924) found that the disease 
is favoured by temperatures between 50°F and 82°F which overlap the optimum 
range for the growth of the tomato plant during the growing season. 
In Hawaii, Hendrix et al (1950) found Fermate (ferric 
dimethyldithio carbamate) and Zerlate (Zinc dimethyl-dithio carbamate) 
more effective than the copper fungicides in controlling the disease. Control 
may also be effected bjr burning all crop residues in an infected area. No 
resistant varieties are available. 
Late Blight. 
Late blight, known also as downy mildew, is caused by the 
fungus Phytophthora infestans (Mont) de Bary. It is one of the most 
destructive diseases of tomatoes. In Auckland province in New Zealand the 
disease has often caused up to 50£ loss of the crop, (Atkinson et al 1949). 
The disease may attack plants at any stage. It is most 
prevalent at temperatures 70°F - 80°F under wet conditions, (Doolittle, 1948). 
It first appears on the leaves and leaf stalks as irregular, greenish black 
water-soaked areas which rapidly enlarge in wet weather and show on the 
undersides of the leaves a white downy growth of the fungus, (Atkinson et al, 
1949, Hendrix et al, 1950). Infection frequently spreads to stems and fruits. 
26 
In Hawaii, Hendrix et al, 1950, obtained successful control of 
the disease with Fermate and Zerlate. Manzate, a Dupont fungicide 
containing manganese ethylene - bis - dithiocarbamate, has been claimed by 
the manufacturers to be effective in controlling the disease# 
Is 
Stemphylium or Gr^y leaf Spot. 
Qs 
C-ray leaf spot is caused by the fungus Stemphylium Solani, GTeber# 
A d escription of it has been given by Hendrix et al, (1950)# Though it 
may attack young seedlings, normally heaviest infection occurs after the 
plants have been transplanted into the field, and after the fruits have set. 
The fungus does not harm the fruit but confines its attack to the 
leaves, the older ones being attacked first# Hie spots which may vary in 
diameter between i inch and ^ inch have a glazed grayish brown appearance 
and are slightly depressed on the lower surface of the leaf. Hie affected 
leaves may turn yellow and die especially if the spots are numerous. The 
dead leaves later drop off# 
Hie disease has recently assumed great importance in the tropics 
and sub tropics of the Western Hemisphere# In Hawaii it has become one of 
the major foliage diseases. In Trinidad it was first recorded in 1954 by 
Barrett and has since become a serious disease# Hardy and Baker noticed 
it during their visit to Andros Island in 1952 and surmised that it might have 
arrived there from Florida where it is a serious disease. 
In Havaii, Zerlate, Fermate, and Tribasic copper sulphate have been 
used to control the disease (Hendrix et al, 1950). Manzate may also be used 
in controlling the disease. 
Resistant varieties are available. Among those grown in Hawaii are 
Nihau, Oaha, Lanai (Frazier et al, 1950)# In Florida the outstanding one 
seems to be the new variety Manalucie which combines a high yielding capacity 
with resistance to the disease (Walter and Kelbert, 1953)# 
Early Blight. 
The disease is caused by Alternania Solani. It occurs in Trinidad, 
(Tremeer 1956, Fenwick, 1957) and is one of the most coirsnon and serious of the 
leaf spot diseases on the Atlantic Coast and Central States of the U.S.A. 
(Thompson & Kelly, 1957)# 
27 
Grayish-brown spots appear on the leaves and later extend to the stem and 
stalk end of the fruits which may drop*' The disease may be controlled with 
the organic compounds of the di-thio-carbamate group* 
Tomato leaf mould* 
by 
Leaf mould is caused/ Cladosporium fulvum, CKe, It probably 
occurs in all countries where tomatoes are grown. It was recorded in 
Trinidad in 1932 by Briandt who has given a description of the disease. In 
Britain the disease sometimes causes serious damage to the green house crop, 
(Allerton, 1954), 
The disease generally appears as yellowish spots on the upperside of 
the oldest leaves which are near the ground and therefore are under humid 
conditions. 'flie under surface of the leaves later develops velvety patches 
of mould growth corresponding with the spots on the upper surface. The leaves 
eventually turn brown and die. The upward spread of the disease often proceeds 
at an alarming rate. 
Small (1929) has shown that the seriousness of the disease depends 
on atmospheric temperature and humidity. At 72°F which was optimum 
temperature for the various stages of the growth of the fungus, Smith found 
that primary infection was severe at 80$ relative humidity, and decreased as 
the temperature was reduced. Under optimum conditions of temperature 
infection was rare at 70$ humidity and at 66$ humidity progress of the disease 
was arrested. 
The disease may be controlled by growing the plant where the 
alanospheric humidity is low or by allowing free circulation of air in the 
glass house. Copper sprays, 'Zlneb' , 'thiram' have all been used with varying 
success against the disease, (Allerton 1954), 
Virus Diseases, 
Hie tomato suffers from a host of diseases caused by a complex of 
viruses, Hiese diseases include tomato or tobacco mosaic, cucumber mosaic, 
tomato spotted wilt, single or tomato streak, double or severe tomato streak, 
and curly top* 
28 
Atkinson et al (1949) and Thompson and Kelly (1957) have given descriptive 
accounts of the virus diseases. 
Went (1945) has shown that the incidence of virus diseases in tomatoes 
is affected by night temperatures• At 13°c Went noticed no tomato mosiac 
symptoms; at 16°C disease symptoms were hardly discernible; at 22° and 26°C 
diseased plants were very apparent and at 30°C night temperature plants 
having mosaic showed systemic effects and were dwarfed. Spotted wilt also 
developed only at high night temperatures. 
Tomato (tobacco) mosaic. 
This is the commonest virus disease of tomatoes occurring both in the 
field and in the green house. It is probably found in all countries where 
tomato is grown, and may become serious resulting in considerable losses. Its 
alternate hosts are tobacco, pepper, eggplant and other solanaceous plants. 
The virus causes green and yellow mottling in the leaves which may 
later turn yellow and die. Plants infected early in the season may be stunted 
and bear little fruit. 
The disease is highly infectious and is readily spread by contact 
between diseased and healthy plants or by contaminated implements and hands of 
workmen during transplanting or pruning. The virus persists in dry tobacco 
leaves and may be introduced into a crop through the fingers of Smokers. It 
may be spread also by aphids. 
Cucumber mosaic. 
Infection of Cucumber mosaic causes the formation of narrow leaves 
which in the extreme may consist mainly of midribs. The reduction in total 
leaf area results in fruits smaller than normal which are inclined to be 
flattened and light in weight. 
The virus has a very wide host range including cucumber, pumpkin, 
marrow, rock melon, milk weed, poke week, viola, pansy, polyanthus, violet. 
Natural spread of the disease is by green aphids. The disease may 
also be spread by workmen whose fingers become contaminated when they handle 
infected plants during pruning, tying and staking operations. The virus is, 
however, not seedborne. 
29 
Tomato Spotted wilt. 
This is a disease which can cause severe losses both in the outdoor 
and glass house crops. The first symptoms on the plants is a branching of 
growing points and a downward curling of stalks of young leaves, together with 
the appearance of small dark necrotic spots on younger leaves. Badly 
affected leaves later turn yellow and wither. Infection often spreads to the 
fruits which develop numerous red, yellow or almost white circular areas. 
Spotted wilt has a very wide host range and affects lettuce, celery, 
spinach, potatoes, peppers, tobacco, garden pea, and many weeds and ornamentals 
such as dahlias, petvmias, Zinnias, Iceland poppy, chrysanthemum. It is 
spread by thrips. 
Single or Tomato streak. 
Though a disease most conmonly found in glass houses, it sometimes 
occurs in the outdoor crop with serious losses. The virus is a strain of the 
tomato (tobacco) mosaic virus and has the same host range, methods of 
transmission and other characteristics. It is however not carried by 
manufactured tobacco as tobacco is not susceptible under field conditions. 
Thesymptoms are black streaks on stems, leaf stalks and fruits, 
which may become sunken. A s light mosaic mottling sometimes appears on the 
leaves. Plants infected when young are stunted, while those developing 
symptoms at a later stage lose much of their foliage and present an unthrifty 
appearance. 
Double or Revere tomato streak. 
Double or severe tomato streak is caused by a combination of tobacco 
mosaic and potato virus X. Leaves of infected plants are small, mottled and 
show dark necrotic spots between the veins. Numerous dark streaks appear on 
the petioles and stems. Infected plants are stunted and set comparatively 
few fruits which may show small sunken spots. Like tobacco - mosaic spread 
occurs through handling of plants during cultural operations. 
Curly top. 
Curly top is caused by the same virus that causes curly top of sugar 
beets. 
- 30 
It is important in the western states of the U.S.A. On infected old plants 
the symptoms of the disease take the form of pronounced upward rolling and 
twisting of leaflets, a general stiffening of the foliage and dull yellowing 
of the whole plant. Infected seelings show a yellowing of the foliage 
which may be accompanied by some curling of the leaves. Hie disease is also 
found on other vegetable crops such as beans, table beets, spinach, squashes 
and peppers. Beet leaf hoppers are thought to transmit the disease. 
Control of_Virus diseases. 
Virus diseases are mainly controlled by taking measures to prevent 
infection. Clean seed, in cases where the virus can be carried on the seed, 
should always be sown. Weeds and ornamental host plants growing near tomato 
fields and plant beds should be destroyed. Infected plants should be removed 
and destroyed. All remains of infected crops should be burnt. ,Torkers who 
smoke must wash their hands before handling the plants and every effort should 
be made to prevent the spread of the disease from Infected to healthy plants in 
transplanting, cultivating, pruning and other cultural practices. Control of 
insect vectors by use of insecticides should aid in control of those diseases 
in which the virus is carried by insects. 
Fruit rots. 
Various fruit rot diseases affect tomatoes in the field and on the 
market. Many of these are caused by fungi or bacteria which are present on 
the fruit when harvested and later attack the fruit thuough minute injuries 
such as broken glandular hairs, sand scarring, growth scars and other 
mechanical injuries. 
Briandt (1932) and Ramsey et al (1952) have written accounts of the 
various fungal and bacterial fruit diseases that occur in Trinidad and the 
U.S.A. 
Late Blight rot is caused by Thylophthora infestans (Mont), 
de Bary. Brown water soaked areas first appear on the fruit and as decay 
advances acquire smooth or rough surfaces. 
Fhoma destruction plowr. produces on the fruit small 
depressed areas enlarging later into circular or ellipitical lesions. 
31 
Fusarium rot is caused by species of Fusarium which are mo~t 
destructive on ripe fruits in the field, producing water-soaked sunken, 
soft, wrinkled areas. 
Cladosporium rot is caused by Cladosporium herbarum Fr. It is 
often the cause of heavy transit and market losses of California tomatoes. 
It is not serious on tomatoes in the field. On green tomatoes the first 
visible signs of Cladosporium rot are small light-tan spots in the skin 
without visible surface mould. As the spots enlarge they become slightly 
sunken and have dark-brown to black centres with light hrcwn margins. 
Of the bacterial rots the most important is probably that caused by 
Erwinia aroideae (Townsend) Holland. Briandt, (1932) noticed it in 
Trinidad, Nowell (1924) has reported it in St. Vincent and Ramsey (1952) has 
recorded it as occurring in the U.S.A. Hie bacterium causes a soft rot in 
which the whole fruit becomes very soft and watery. Briandt (1932) has 
demonstrated that the bacterium is essentially a wound parasite and probably 
enters the fruit through punctures made by the bugs Leptoglossus and Pthia. 
Control of fruit rots. 
As most of the pathogens enter the fruit through injuries, it is 
necessary to handle tomatoes as carefully as possible during picking and 
packing to avoid skin cuts and punctures. It is advisable to wash and 
cool tomatoes by ventilation or refrigeration soon after harvesting. This 
is effective in preventing soft rots and other decays caused by the rapid 
development of certain pathogens. It also prevents excessive ripening during 
transit. Tomatoes should however not be chilled as chilled fruits are 
subject to extensive decay by the slow action of weak pathogens. 
All fruits showing disease symptoms should be removed immediately 
after harvest. 
Physiological diseases. 
Hie physiological diseases that affect tomatoes are not caused by 
pathogens but are the result of unfavourable environmental conditions during 
growth. 
32 
Hie most important of these diseases are blossom-end rot,growth cracks, 
puffiness, sun-scald (Briandt, 1932; Ramsey et al, 1952; Atkinson et al 
1949; Thompson & K elly, 1957). Other physiological diseases of minor 
significance are described by Atkinson et al, (1949). He se include 
catface in which the fruits are distorted and puckered at the blossom-end; 
hard-core which shows itself as a hardening of the tissues around the stem 
end of the fruit; fruit splitting which is characterised by wide, shallow 
deep brown depressions on the side or blossom-end of the fruit; and blotchy-
ripening in which yeHOT patches with a network of vascular bundles develop 
on the fruit. This latter disease is often serious in New Zealand. 
Blossom-end rot. 
Hiis is found where ever tomatoes are grown and may cause serious 
losses during certain seasons. Well defined dark leathery and sunken lesions 
develop at the blossom end of the fruits# 
Hie disease appears to be induced by a temporary but severe water 
deficit in the plant causing the cells at the blossom-end of the fruit to 
break down# Hiis condition may occur during periods of drought especially 
when they come after periods of abundant moisture. It may also occur 
during periods of excessive moisture. Under these conditions many roots are 
killed by lack of air and soil fungi and the plant suffers from 
physiological drought. 
Evidence has been presented by Evans and Troxler (1953) which indicates 
that calcium deficiency may favour the disease. 
The disease may be controlled by ensuring a uniform supply of water. 
Resistant varieties are available and may be used. 
Growth cracks. 
Growth cracks occur in all countries where tomatoes are grown. The 
cracks occur at the stem end of the fruit and either radiate from the stem 
or develop concentrically around the shoulder of the fruit. On the market 
growth cracks detract from the appearance of the fruit and predispose it to 
disease. 
33 
Periods of abundant rainfall and high temperatures especially if 
they follow long dry spells favour the disease. According to Reynard 
(1951) the severity of radial cracking of susceptible strains is more closely 
associated with the number of days that rain fell Just preceding picking 
than with the amount of rain in the same period. 
The incidence of the disease may be reduced by picking fruits before 
they become fully ripe. Resistant varieties like Faralucie (Walter and 
Kelbert, 1953) are available and may be grown. 
Puffiness. 
Puffy tomatoes are only partially filled with pulp and seed. They 
feel soft, are light in weight, and their surface is usually flattened or 
sunken in areas between the internal cross walls. Puffiness seems to be 
caused by environmental and nutritional factors that affect pollination and 
fertilization. Results of experiments by Yarnell et al, (1937) indicated 
that temperature above 100°F increased puffiness in Texas and that there 
was a general relationship between rainfall and the percentage of puffy 
fruits. (See also climatic conditions of growth - Rainfall). 
Sunscald. 
Sunscald of tomatoes usually occurs when tomatoes are exposed to 
intense sunlight. The damage consists of flattened greyish-white spots 
with a dry papery surface on the fruits. Any factor that causes shedding 
of the leaves increases the risk of sunscald. Pruning, it has been reported, 
tends to increase sunscald. 
Pests. 
The insect pests of the tomatoes are legion. They include ants, 
millipedes, caterpillars, cutworms, leather jackets, wire worms, flea beetles, 
eelworms, the green vegetable bug, the white fly, green aphids, thrips, mites 
woodlice, leaf hoppers, leaf miners, slugs and snails, midges, crickets. 
Ants. 
These are usually not very serious pests. Edwards, (1948) has however 
reported that the Fire Ant, Solenopsis geminata sometimes makes it difficult 
34 
in Jamaica to establish a nursery by unearthing and carrying 
away seeds newly sown. 
Millipedes. 
These attack the stem and lower leaves of young plants. 
They are apparently serious in Jamaica where Edwards (1948) advises the 
drenching of seed boxes or small nurseries infected with them, with 
Jeyes-Kerosene soap emulsion as a control measure. In Britain the 
burrowing minute millipede Scutigerella immaculata causes very severe 
damage to the extending roots of the young plant, (Allerton, 1954). 
Plants can be protected from attack by applying to the root region a 
solution of DDT., EHC. or parathion. 
Caterpillars, cutworms, fruit worms. 
Caterpillars and fruit worms are among the most serious and 
widespread pests of the tomato. In New Zealand looper-caterpillar 
(Fbisia chalcites Esp. and the tomato-caterpillar (Heliothis armiger IH) 
attack the foliage and fruits eating large holes in them and making the 
fruits unmarketable (Atkinson et al, 1949). Heliothis armiger also 
occurs in Jamaica, (Edwards, 1948), in Trinidad and in California and the 
Southern parts of the U.S.A. In these two latter areas it is known 
as Tomato fruitworm. Previous to 1940 when DDT. began to be widely 
used in glass houses the Tomato moth (Hadena Oleracea) destroyed many tons 
of the crop in Britain, (Allerton, 1954). 
The tobacco horn worm (Protoparce sexta) is a large 
caterpillar which when present in large numbers may completely defoliate 
the entire crop. In the U.S.A. it is occasionally serious (Thompson 
and Kelly 1957). In the Bahamas (Dalgano, 1936), in Jamaica (Edwards, 
1948) and in Trinidad (Wright, 1932) it does damage but seldom on a large 
scale. 
Cutworms (Agrostis spp. ) are occasional pests of the outdoor 
crop. They usually occur on land left fallow for some time or which has 
been allowed to be weed-infested. 
35 
Cutworms attack the plants during 1he night by eating away the stem at 
soil level thus causing complete collapse. Control measures suggested 
by Edwards, (1948), Atkinson et al, (1949) include destruction of all 
weeds growing among the tomatoes, thorough ploughing of the soil to expose 
the pests to adverse conditions, and spraying with D.D. T., or arsenical 
compounds. The latter compounds may also be used to control other 
caterpillars. 
Eelworms. 
m »mm i i -ii i.» i • 
Several species of eelworms attack the roots of the tomato 
causing galls and stunting. The most common occuring in Britain, U.S.A., 
New Zealand, is the root-knot eelworm (Heterodera marioni), (Atkinson et 
al 1949, Thompson & Kelly 1957, Allerton 1954). Another species 
mentioned by Allerton 1954 Which may become more serious and more difficult 
to control than root-knot eeelworm is the potato eelworm (Heterodera 
ros toe hi ens is). In Hawaii the most common species is Meloidogyne 
incognita, (Gilbert and McGuire, 1956). 
Eelworms may be controlled by steam or chemical disinfection of 
the soil where economical. Since the pest tends to build up where 
successive crops of a susceptible plant are raised, growing tomatoes on the 
same land for two successive years should be avoided. If eelworm becomes 
established tomatoes should be rotated with a grass crop since grasses are 
the only plants resistant to the pest, (Atkinson et al, 1949). 
In Hawaii attempts are being made to produce resistant varieties, 
(Gilbert and McGuiie, 1956). 
Mites. 
Of the mites that attack tomato the most important are the Red 
Spider Mite (Tetranychus telarius), the Red-legged Earth-mite (Halotydeus 
destructor) and species of Phyllocoptes. 
In Britain the red spider mite has become the despair of the 
glass house tomato grower by producing resistant generations to any new 
pesticide that is produced. The pest lives in large numbers on the 
underside of the leaves on which it feeds, (Allerton, 1954). 
36 
Hie red-legged earth-mite often causes severe wilting of young transplants 
by sucking large quantities of sap from the leaf tissues, (Atkinson et al, 
1949). Species of Fhyllocoptes are of sporadic occurrence but may cause 
severe damage under glass and in the field# Tvhite mould caused by the 
Mite Eriophyles cladophthirus was noticed on tomato in Montserrat by 
Campbell (1957). Hie mite causes outgrowth of epidermal cells giving the 
appearance of white mould. Hie disease does not kill the plant but reduces 
yields. 
Mites may be controlled by fumigating glass houses with nicotine 
sulphate or azobenzene or spraying with D.D.T, or parathion. 
Aphids. 
Aphids are casual pests on tomatoes but may become serious when 
they are in large numbers. Plants attacked by these insects remain dwarfed 
whilst their young leaves curl and do not expand normally. Hie green aphid 
Macrosiphum euphorbias is known to carry cucumber-mosaic, (Atkinson et al, 
1949) and should be controlled as soon as it is noticed. The pest is easily 
controlled with nicotine sulphate or B.H.C. in various formulations. 
Leaf miner. 
Hie disease is caused by Liriomyza Solani and is characterised 
by Serpentine tunnels in the leaf, formed by the maggots of the fly. Hie 
disease has recently become a serious problem in Trinidad. Where the attack 
is heavy the effective leaf area becomes limited, arxl yields are reduced. 
Hie disease can be controlled with EHC or parathion, (Allerton, 1954). 
Midge. 
Contarinia lycopersici, a small midge has often been reported 
to occur on tomatoes in the West Indies. In 1911 it was reported in St. 
Vincent in the Agricultural Department Report of that year. In 1932 Br.iandt 
noticed it in Trinidad where it caused considerable damage to tomato flowers. 
In 1952 Hardy and Baker found it on tomatoes in Andros Island, Bahamas. 
The midge lays its eggs in the young flower buds. Prom these eggs small 
white larvae emerge which feed inside the anther cone frequently 
damaging the style and ovary. The flower often abscisses. If it 
remains on the plant a damaged malformed fruit may develop. The disease 
is especially serious during the wet season. 
Grading. 
In many countries where tomatoes are grown the crop is marketed 
on the basis of grade. A premium price is usually paid for high-grade 
tomatoes which should considt of large fruits, very few or none of which 
are green, over ripe, rotten or defective. 
In the U.S.A. tomatoes are graded according to specifications laid 
down by the State Department. As the harvested crop comes to the packing 
sheds the defective, damaged and rotten fruits are removed by hand and the 
good, marketable ones are sorted by hand or sizing machines into sizes of 
which there are usually four, (Spangler & Ide 1955j Thompson & Kelly 1957). 
In British West Indian producing countries, mature - green fruits 
a r e  g r a d e d  i n t o  s i x  s i z e s  n a m e l y :  5 x 5 ,  5 x 6 ,  6 x 6 ,  6 x 7 ,  7 x 7 ,  7 x 8 .  
The larger sizes 5x5 (three tomatoes to the pound) to 6 x 7 (approximately 
5 tomatoes to the pound) are usually exported to America. All other sizes 
are locally marketable. 
Packing for the_Market. 
The packing process and various containers used for shipping tomatoes 
have been described by Spangler and Ide, 1955. In the U.S.A. the lug box 
is the most popular package used in shipping by rail or truck tomatoes to the 
markets. It is a lidded rectangular box designed to hold about 30 lbs. of 
tomatoes wrapped in paper and place-packed. Other containers which are 
becoming important as carriers for the mature-green fruit are wire-bound crates, 
nailed crates, and field boxes. These are larger than the lug box and made 
to take 60 lbs. of jumble-packed fruits. Wire bound and nailed crates are 
provided with a lid and cardboard linings. The fruits carried in them are 
however not wrapped in paper. 
38 
Pink and ripe tomatoes are shipped -usually in 8-, 12- and 16- quart 
splint, market, climax and fiber-board baskets, peach boxes and hampers which 
have handles. These boxes owing to their small size are well adapted to Sales 
direct to the consumer. 
In Jamaica, Cuba, Bahamas and Montserrat, the lug box as described 
above is used exclusively as package for wrapped tomatoes. 
In the Canaries shipment of tomatoes is in wooden boxes holding 14 -
18 lbs. of fruit with about 5| lb. of packing material including paper, peat 
and sawdust, (Holmes, 1931). 
In Tests on containers for shipping Florida tomatoes, Halsey et al 
(1955) found that despite the popularity of the lug box,its flimsy lid, rough 
surfaces and protruding staples, prevented it from being a first class 
shipping container. They found that wire-bound boxes with heavy paper lining 
and smooth surfaced fiber-board boxes gave better protection against pressure 
and box-rubbing injury than lug boxes or unlined field boxes. 
Storage. 
Shipment of tomatoes to distant markets necessitates storage under cold 
conditions for some days during which the fruits should be kept sufficiently 
dormant to allow of distribution at the marketing centres in fresh condition. 
Where tomatoes are exported on ships which operate at fairly long 
intervals provision is often made for pre-cooling the fruits before they are 
finally put into cold storage on a ship. For Trinidad grown commercial fruit 
Wardlaw and McGuire (1932) found 47.5° F. to be the optimal temperature for 
cold storage. At this temperature incidence of fungal and bacterial diseases 
was at a minumum, and there was also little danger of suitable colouring not 
developing when the fruits were later removed into a ripening temperature. 
Wright (1953), however, working with Trinidad tomatoes at this cold storage 
temperature and a ripening temperature of 70°F, got a high percentage of wastage 
from fhoma destructiva after keeping the fruits for 15 - 17 days in cold 
storage. The discrepancy in the results was probably due to the fact that 
Wardlaw and McGuire did their work during the dry season while Wright carried 
out his experiments in the wet season when conditions favoured disease. 
39 
According to Platenius et al (1934), however, tomatoes kept at temperatures 
below 49° F. for longer than 2 weeks may decay rapidly when allowed to 
ripen subsequently at 70° F. Craft and Heinze (1954) found that mature-
green fruit stored at 32° F for 9-14 days failed to ripen properly and 
showed signs of low-temperature injury when transferred to 65° F. IJright 
et al (1931) consider 55° F. as the lowest temperature at which tomatoes 
ripen ' with good colour and good flavour. 
INVESTIGATIONS INTO DRY-SEASON TOMATO PRODUCTION IN TRINIDAD. 
Object of Experiment. 
The object of the experiment was to find the effects on 
yield and size of fruit and also costings of the following 
treatments: 
(i) Pruning and staking of tomato stems. 
(ii) Different cultural methods. 
Experimental Details. 
Three methods of cultivation were adopted. These were: 
(1) Planting tomato seedlings on the flat and leaving them on 
flat throughout their growth. 
(2) Planting tomato seedlings on the flat and moulding 
subsequently. 
(3) Planting tomato seedlings on ridges made before transplanting 
There were also three combinations of pruning and staking 
treatments. These included: 
(1) No pruning and no staking. 
(2) Staking without pruning. 
(5) staking with pruning. 
A  3 x 3  r a n d o m i s e d  f a c t o r i a l  d e s i g n  w a s  a d o p t e d  f o r  t h e  
experiment. There were four replications in each of which the nine 
treatment combinations were randomised using Cochran and cox's (1957) 
tables of random permutations. The nine treatment combinations 
were represented in the plan of the layout as follows, (See Appendix I) 
Treatment combinations legend. 
1. PLanting on the flat; no pruning Q F 
and no staking 
2. Planting on the flat and moulding Q M 
later; no pruning and no staking 
41 
3. Planting on ridgesj no pruning and 
no staking Q R 
4* Planting on the flat; staking 
withoxit pruning P F 
5. Planting on the flat and moulding 
later; staking without pruning P M 
6. Planting on ridges; staking without 
pruning. P R 
7. Planting on the flat; staking with 
pruning,. S F 
8, Planting on the flat and moulding 
later; staking with pruning S M 
9, Planting on ridges; staking with 
pruning. S R 
previously 
"Riree cambered beds measuring 280' x 24* each and/planted 
with maize were used for the experiment. The beds lay together and 
were orientated east to west. Two replications (2 and 3) were 
placed on the middle bed, one replication occupying half of the bed. 
The remaining two replications 1 and 4 were placed on the eastern 
halves of the other two beds, since fertility was known to deteriorate 
westwards. 
discard around each of "the four margins, giving a net harvest area 
of 21' x 9* . After discards had been allowed the harvested areas 
became very much narrower than the gross plots and thus tended towards 
4 
the ideal of long narrow plots recommended by Christidis (1931), 
between plants in the row. One plot thus consisted of 5 rows of 
16 plants, giving 80 plants per plot. After discards had been 
allowed, 42 plants were left to be harvested. This number of plants 
was just adequate as Strickland (1935) reports 36 as being the least 
number to give satisfactory coefficient of variation. 
Bach plot measured 24' x 15' and had a single row of 
The plant spacing adopted was 3 ft. between rows and 1^ f t. 
SOIL Tfrpe, 
According to Chenery (1952) the soil of the area of 
the experiment falls in the Azonal River Estate sand series 
which consists of alluvial material of micaceous or schisty 
sand and have dark yellowish brown loamy topsoils merging below 
into a pale yellow fine sandy loam with black and orange concretions. 
Vine (1958) is however of the opinion that the soil of the 
experimental area must be classified in the VJashington s eries owing 
to its impeded drainage and hi$i water table. 
NURSERY OPERATIONS, 
Before the nursery beds were made the area allotted to 
them was ploughed and two weeks later, that is on the 7th of 
November 1957, levelled with rakes and hoes. Four beds 30' x 4* 
and 6 ins. high were prepared. A layer of highly humic soil from 
under a clump of bamboos was spread thinly and evenly over the surface 
\ :  
of the beds. On the 11th of December, five days before sowing of 
the seeds, a mixture of artificial fertilizers containing sulphate of 
Ammonia, triple super phosphate, and sulphate of potash was applied 
to the beds at the rate of 9oz/ sq. yard. This was made up of 2oz 
sulphate of ammonia, 3oz triple super phosphate and 4oz sulphate 
of potash. The seeds which were of the indeterminate 'Ogier' 
variety were sown thinly in drills 3" apart. Before sowing, the 
surfaces of the beds were broken into a fine tilth using a rake and 
more bamboo soil was lightly sprinkled on them. After sowing the 
drills were closed using the fingers. 
A low shed of palm leaves about 3 ft. from the ground was 
raised on bamboo uprights to shade the beds. Watering was done 
morning and afternoon except when it rained. 
Germination started five days after sowing. Percentage 
germination obtained was 55. Ihis was considered poor and was 
thought to have been caused by the heavy rains which, starting soon 
43 
after the seeds were sown, fell continuously for three days. 
Four days after germination the s eedlings were singled 
out to a spacing of 3" x 3". The following day they were 
sprayed with perenax and the shade over them slightly reduced. 
A s econd spraying was given two days later and the shade further 
reduced. 12 days after germination the shade was completely 
removed. Hie seedlings were by this time well away and showed 
every promise of continued satisfactory growth. 
FIELD OPERATIONS. 
1. Transplanting. 
Hie three experimental beds were cutlassed on the 15th 
of November. Hie thrash was removed the next day and the beds 
ploughed a day after. On the following day the beds were disced 
and allowed to lie fallow for seven weeks. 
On the 13th and 14th of December the beds were again 
cutlassed of weeds and the blocks and plots marked as described 
above. Ridges which were spaced 3 ft. apart from crest to crest 
and lying across the beds were made on the plots which were to receive 
thi3 treatment. 
Holes were dug at a spacing of 3' x 1§* during the mornings 
of the 16th and 17th of December and the seedlings were planted out in 
the afternoons. Except the seedlings transplanted on ridges, all 
seedlings were transplanted on the flat to begin with. No special 
care was taken to preserve a ball of earth a round the roots of ihe 
seedling during lifting, but most of the seedlings as they were planted 
out had bits of soil sticking to their roots. The seedlings at the 
time of transplanting were about 10 ins. tall, looked robust and had 
a healthy green colour. They showed no signs of disease except a 
very slight attack of leaf miner. 
44 
Each seedling immediately after transplanting received a 
^ pint of a starter solution containing aldrin and a fertilizer 
mixture made up of two parts of Ammonium phosphate to one part of 
potassium nitrate, 5 lb. of the mixture of fertilizers being dissolved 
in 50 gallons of water. Hiis concentration of starter solution was 
used as it had been shown by many investigators including Fenwich (1957) 
to give higher yields than lower concentrations. The aldrin was added 
to prevent mole crickets and other soil pests from attacking the 
seedlings. 
Supplying was carried out until 13 days after transplanting 
into the field, the final supplying being done on 30th December. The 
low percentage of supplying (6.3$) obtained for the whole experiment 
again demonstrated the importance of transplanting during the afternoon. 
In 1957 Fenwich obtained for bare root seedlings transplanted 
after 3 O'clock in the afternoon total percentage replacements varying 
from 10.3 to 13.2 and for seedlings raised in pots obtained percentage 
replacements of 6.4 for seedlings raised in pots, Smith (1954) 
obtained a comparetive figure of 6,1% and Tremeer (1956) obtained 8.3$. 
S U P P L Y I N G .  
BLOCKS TOTAL NO. SUP PIT Ml PERCENT SUPPLYING J 
I 51 7.1. 
II 10 1.3 
III 8 1.1 
IV 111 15.4 
WHOLE EXPT. 180 6.3 
45 
Judging from the fact that various workers have found pot raised 
seedlings to have greater transplanting power than seedlings raised 
on seedbeds, the seedlings produced in the present experiment could 
be said to have established very well# Their success was also 
partly due to the very favourable weather conditions (an overcast sky) 
prevailing during the time of transplanting, partly to the use of 
starter solution and partly also to the moist soil conditions produced 
by rainfall just before transplanting. 
2. Moulding, Weeding, fertilizing. 
The method of fertilizing was virtually the same as that 
employed by Tremeer (1956) and Fenwich (1957). 500 lb./Acre of 
a mixture of sulphate of anmonia, superphosphate and potassi\im sulphate 
in the ratio of It 2t 1 was applied at the tire of first moulding up 
which was a week after transplanting. The fertilizer was "spotted" 
i.e. it was placed in a small heap near each plant and covered up with 
soil during moulding up or weeding of the ridges and flats. Each 
plot received 4 \ lb. of the mixture of fertilizer. 
The second and last dressing of fertilizer was applied 
twenty four days later as Hester (1937) had shown that tomato plants 
absorb most of their nutrients between the 2nd and 3rd months after 
transplanting. For the second dressing vhich was at 600 lb./acre 
or 5 lb. per plot the potassium content of the mixture was increased 
and the nitrogen decreased. The mixture used was? 
52 lb. Ammonium sulphate, 
60 lb. Triple Super phosphate. 
68 lb. Potassium sulphate. 
The fertilizer was again "spotted" and covered with soil during the 
second moulding and weeding operations. 
- 46 -
Moulding was done with a long handled hoe in the usual 
peasant manner. The weeds in the flat areas were scraped using 
the long hoe care being taken not to do any deep cultivation. On 
the ridged and moulded plots weeding was automatically done as the 
ridges and moulds were made up. 
3. Pruning. 
Pruning was started on 2nd January soon after the first 
blossoms appeared on the plants. Each stem was pruned to a single 
stem by pinching out the new suckers or shoots as they appeared in 
the axils of the leaves. Pruning was done as often as was found 
necessary. 
4. Staking. 
In all the staking treatments, each plant was tied to a 
bamboo stake of an average height of 6 ft. 'Eying of the plants 
to the stakes was done with wrapping twine. Staking and tying were 
started on the 8th of January and ended on the 14th of the same month. 
Many times during the season the tying operation was repeated in order 
to keep the plants properly tied. 
5. Spraying. 
Spraying in the field started on the 18th of December 
a day after transplanting was completed. Alternate weekly 
spraying with "perenox" and a mixture of "manzate" and Hfosferno" 
(parathion ) was adopted. "Perenox" at the rate of £ oz in a 
gallon of water containing 12 drops of Dupont spreader sticker was 
sprayed in the first week. In the following week a mixture of 
"manzate" and "fosferno", also containing Dupont spreader sticker at 
the rate of 20 drops per gallon of mixture, was sprayed; and so the 
spraying was continued. The "manzate" and the "fosferno" were at 
the rates of \ oz and % f luid oz per gallon respectively. 
47 
Manzate is a Dupont proprietary substance containing as 
the active principle manganese ethylene-bis-dithio carbamate. It 
has been claimed by the manufacturers to be effective against the 
fungus diseases, early blight, late blight, septoria leaf spot, grey 
leaf spot, and anthracnose. Fosferno was used to control leaf 
miner and caterpillars. 
6. Irrigation. 
Irrigation was started on the 31st of January and continued 
at weekly intervals except when there was rainfall in the intervening 
period. The overhead sprinkler system was used. One inch of water 
(3 hours irrigation) was delivered by the sprinkler system during the 
first irrigation. In subsequent irrigations the time of irrigation 
was increased to 4^- hours which was equivalent to 1§ inches of water. 
A total of 5 inches of water (15 irrigation hours) was used to 
irrigate the area during the period of the experiment. 
General observations in the field. 
Soon after transplanting the seedlings lost their healthy 
green colour and turned yellowish green. About a week after the 
first application of fertilizer however, the green colour returned to 
the seedlings which started to grew vigorously. 
Ihe f irst blossoms were observed on the 30th of December, 
two weeks after transplanting. On the 6th of January fruiting was 
also observed. 
Weed growth. 
Weed growth was found to be most abundant on the flat areas. 
Diseases. 
Except an attack of leaf miner the plants were free from 
pests and diseases during the early period of their growth. 
us 
The attack of leaf miner which started in the nursery increased 
with the growth of the plants in the field but was prevented from 
becoming serious by spraying with "fosferno". 
Six weeks after transplanting Grey leaf spot (Steraplilium 
solani ) appeared on the bottom leaves of a few plants. These 
leaves developed brownish spots and later turned yellow and died. 
Within a month other leaf diseases including Cladosporium fulvum, 
Septoria lycopersical, Alternaria solani had attacked the plants 
and with the increase in the incidence of grey leaf spot were causing 
a steady decline in yields. 
The method of alternate weekly spraying with "perenox" 
and "manzate" adopted to control diseases was not very successful. 
It would appear that the interval between tiro successive sprayings 
with the same fungicide especially in the case of "manzate" was too 
long for effective control to be achieved. It is also likely that 
the rates at which the fungicides were used were not high enough to 
cope with the diseases under the conditions prevailing on the New Farm, 
It is suggested that "manzate" should be used again in future experiments 
at higher rates and at shorter intervals. 
The incidence of mosaic was very low in all the treatments. 
This was probably due to the fact that the workers who did the pruning 
and tying were made to wash their hands with soap before they started 
on any operation. 
The incidence of physiological diseases was negligible for 
blossom-end rot and fairly high for growth-cracks. The incidence of 
the latter disease was estimated to be 20$. Its distribution 
among the different treatments was observed to be fairly uniform. 
The staking and pruning treatments did not appear to be affected to any 
greater extent than any of the other treatments. 
49 
Harvesting, 
Harvesting started on the 4th of February and continued 
to the 10th of March, Two pickings were made each week, on 
Tuesdays and Thursdays, to .coincide with the opening of the College 
# 
Vegetable Shop, Fruits were picked when they were at the mature-
green stage or just turning colour. The plots were harvested one 
at a time and the tomatoes were carried to the Shed in paper boxes# 
At the Shed fruits were graded into two sizes: those with a diameter 
greater than 2 inches, and those with a diameter below this size. 
50 
R E S U L T S .  
TOTAL YIELDS OF INDIVIDUAL PLOTS IN LB. 
BLOCK I. BLOCK II. 
I 
S F 1 I P M 
51.00 
• 
i 1 
{ A3.2 5 
S M 
| j 
: P F 
53.25 53.50 
1 
Q M 
I 
. S R 
53.75 61.75 
P F S F 
66.50 ^ A9.75 
• I 
P R 
i 
1 
1 Q F 
68.75 56.75 
Q R 
• t ) 
P R 
67.0 i 68.0 
| 1 
Q F S M 
52.0 69.5 
l 
$ > ! 
11 1 1 
S R Q R 
58.75 64.75 
in. _1 : 
P M [ Q M 
71.50 61.00 
BLOCK III. 
, j 
BLOCK IV. 
51 
INDIVIDUAL PLOT YIELD OF FRUIT OVER 2" IN DIAMETER 
IN LBS. 
BLOCK I. BLOCK II. BLOCK III. BLOCK IV. 
S F 
30.00 
P M 
22.25 
I 
P M 
39.25 i 
i 
P R 
27.75 
S M 
25.00 
P F 
31.25 
Q F 
35.25 
Q M 
21.75 
Q.M 
33.25 
S R 
38.25 
Q R 
41.25 
• | 
Q R 
19.00 
P F 
39.50 
S F 
29.25 
S R 
43.25 
S F 
18.25 
P R | ] 
43.50 
i 
, 
Q F 
29.00 
P R 
40.00 
S R 
22.25 
| I 
Q R 
38.50 
P R 
38.75 
P F 
47.75 
P F 
15.00 
Q F 
35.00 
S M 
41.25 
S F 
39.25 
S M 
16.00 
S R 
33.00 
Q R 
38.75 
Q M 
36.75 
JO
 
o
 
o VJX
 o
 
P M 
39.00 
Q M 
36.50 
S M 
40.00 
P M 
23.75 
» ' 
52 
TWO - WAY TABLES. 
I. TOTAL YIELD OF FRUTT IN LB. 
r 
FLAT ; MOULD 
I 
RIDGE TOTAL 
I 
MEAN 
STAKING WITH 
PRUNING 
201.00 224.. 50 230.75 656.25 54.63 
STAKING WITHOUT 
PRUNING 230.00 219.25 255.00 704.25 58.69 
NO STAKING; 
No PRUNING. 
195.25 220.00 233.25 643.50 54.04 
TOTAL 626.25 663.75 719.00 2009.00 
MEAN 52.19 55.31 59.92 55.31 
II. TOTAL YIELD OF FRUIT OVER 2" IN DIAMETER IN LB. 
FLAT MOULD RIDGE 
L . . _ 
TOTAL MEAN 
STAKING WITH 
PRUNING 
116.75 122.25 
i 
136.75 375.75 31.31 
STAKING WITHOUT 
PRUNING. 133.50 124.25 150.00 407.75 33.98 
NO STAKING; 
NO PRUNING. 
115.75 128.25 
K I II 
137.50 381.50 31.79 
TOTAL 366.00 374.75 424.25 1165.00 
MEAN 30.50 31.23 j 35.35 32.36 
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 
(a) TOTAL YIELD. 
Source of 
Variation. D F S S M S 
I  
F 
Blocks 3 4305.24 1435.08 32.63 * * * 
Treatments 8 629.26 78.66 
Cultural 2 362.82 181.41 4.12 * 
Training & Pruning 2 152.00 76.00 1.73 
Interaction 4 1U.44 28.61 0.65 
Error 24 1055.51 43.98 
TOTAL 35 5990.01 
S. E. of a single plot yield 
Coefficient of variation of single plot yield 
S. E. of mean of 12 plot yields 
= 6063 
= 11.8  % 
1.916. 
Training and pruning treatments and their interaction with 
the cultural treatments were not significant. The cultural treatments 
were significant at the 5% l evel. The F-ratio for blocks was very 
highly significant suggesting that there were real fertility or edaphic 
variations in the area and thus justifying the adoption of the randomised 
block design for the experiment. This fertility trend in the area 
was actually observed by its effects throughout the experiment. It 
appeared soil conditions were least favourable on block IV. which gave 
the lowest yield and took the greatest number of supplies. On this 
block also it was observed that the condition of the plants was not as 
satisfactory as it was on the other blocks in the early stages of growth. 
Applying the T - test to the cultural treatments it was 
found that at 24 D - F. ridging gave significantly greater yields 
at the 1$ level than planting on the flat. The increased yield of 
ridging treatment over the moulding treatment was however not 
significant. The difference in yield between moulding and planting 
on the flat was also not significant. 
Value of t for diff. between means of Ridge and flat = 2.877 ** 
it w n n n it n ti Ridge and mould = 1.715 
it ii « n ii ii ti ii Mould and flat = 1.116 
(b) FRUIT SIZE. 
Source of 
Variation D F S S M S 
i 
F 
Blocks 3 2031.06 6 77.02 
*#* 
28.70 
Treatments 8 246.52 30.82 
Cultural 2 164.44 82.22 3.48 * 
Training & Pruning 2 48.50 24.25 1.03 
Interaction 4 33.58 8.39 0.36 
Error 24 566.24 23.59 
Total 35 2843.82 
S.E. of a single plot yield 
Coefficient of variation of single plot yield 
S.E. of mean of 12 plot yields 
4.85 
15.055 
1.4 lbs. 
55 
Training and pruning treatments and their interaction 
with the cultural treatments were not significant and do not seem 
to affect the size of fruit. The cultural treatments were however 
just significant at the 5% l evel. This suggests that fruit size may 
depend on the type of cultural treatment given to the plants in the 
field. 
"T" Test. 
Application of the "Trt test to the cultural treatments 
showed that at 24 D.F. plants grown on ridges yielded significantly 
at the 5% l evel larger fruits than either plants grown on the flat or 
moulded up. There was no significant difference between the flat 
and the mould as regards fruit size. 
Value of "t" for diff. between means of Ridge and flat - 2.449* 
n n it it n n ii ii Ridge and mould - 2.081* 
•» « " " « " " " Mould and flat - 0.36 
56 
Discussion, 
Cultural treatments. 
In the experiment plants grown on the ridges very-
significant ly outyielded those planted on the level but showed no 
measurable difference from those planted on the level and moulded up 
later. No measurable difference in yield was also found between 
plants on the level and those on the "mould", though the latter 
outyielded the former. With the exception of Smith (1954-) who 
reported results in which flat cultivation and moulding significantly 
produced higher yields than ridging, various investigators at I.C.T.A. 
have obtained results similar to those obtained in the present 
experiment, in which plants on ridges and on the mould have outyielded 
plants on the level. 
Opinion is however divided on which of the two methods -
ridge planting and planting on the mould - is superior. Fenwich (1957) 
obtained no significant differences between the two methods but had 
higher yields from plants on ridges, while Rombulow-Pearse (1953) also 
obtained no significant differences between the two methods but had 
higher yields from plants in the mould. 
The conflicting results may have resulted from the different 
conditions under which the experiments were done. Most of the 
experiments had an attack of diseases which in the case of Smith's 
work caused very serious damage; a fact which might well have accounted 
for the very different results he obtained. In some of the experiments 
also all the plants were staked to facilitate harvesting while in others 
staking was adopted as a main treatment whose effects were to be found out. 
Though no interactions have been reported between staking and cultural 
methods, there is evidence elsewhere that staking may interact with 
variety (Currence 194-1) and with spacing (Deonier, 1944)* 
/ 
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H-ARVtFSTir^ 
In the present experiment it was found that plants on 
ridges produce larger fruits than those growing on the level or on 
moulds* This needs further confirmation as the level of 
significance is rather low. 
Training and pruning treatment^t 
Though the Training and pruning treatments showed no 
significant differences among themselves in yield, the indication 
would appear to be that staking and pruning do have adverse effects 
on early though not on total yields. Staking without pruning 
appears to retard early yields more effectively than the combination 
of staking and pruning. This increased early yield with staking 
and pruning is however nothing like as great as the early yields obtained 
with no staking and no pruning. (See Graph II). 
The higher total yields obtained for the two treatments 
staking with pruning and staking without pruning may be attributed to 
the increase in the incidence of disease after the first four pickings. 
After giving unsatisfactory early yields the staking without pruning 
treatment began to show increasing yields and over the last four pickings 
actually outyielded the other two treatments. The no-staking and 
no-pruning treatment was the hardest hit with disease and at the end of 
the experiment was showing an overall total yield below that of the other 
two treatments even though it had given the highest early yields. Under 
disease conditions it would appear staking is more advantageous than 
no-staking. This advantage may be lessened by pruning staked plants. 
The costings show that the most profitable treatment was 
staking without pruning, the next profitable no-staking and no-pruning 
and the least profitable staking with pruning (See appendix IV). Under 
conditions at the College farm, and from the stand-point of financial 
gain, staking with pruning is the least desirable of the three treatments. 
Despite the fact that it resulted in higher total yields than the no-
staking and no-pruning treatment, it brought in a lower net income than 
3oo-
— STAKm<<;N«> 
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• • * Ho StakikG 5 Ko pew NiN(, 
lOo 
G R A P H  ii 
(^Uovjomcj Cu^vuc^(ct4•v€ 
X~o~Y 'frUiyi\is\a atocl prMr)t*4 
J4v^cc4i^Vs) 1 1 
i—i— 
H 19 2.1 
Fe. e RuA RY 
J>*te <5F i^AR VES ue\C, 
1 
€ 
PI A R ch 
- 59 
the latter treatment owing to the high cost of the staking and 
pruning operations. Pruning with staking may therefore not be 
recommended under any circumstances while staking alone may be 
recommended where there is disease risk or in the wet season. When, 
however, diseases are not a serious problem, tomatoes may be grown with 
the best results without staking and pruning. 
60 
S U M M A R Y .  
The effects on yields of training and pruning and of different 
cultural treatments are investigated. 
Planting on the ridge is found to give significantly 
higher yields than planting on the level, but to show no measurable 
difference from planting on the "mould". No measurable difference 
in yield is also found between planting on the level and planting on 
the "mould". 
No significant differences are found between the training 
and pruning treatments. There is indication, however, that growing 
tomatoes without staking and pruning favours early yields, and staking 
and pruning tend to increase total yields. 
The different operations in the experiment are costed for 
and it is shown that staking and pruning is of the least financial 
benefit, while staking without pruning brings in the greatest financial 
returns. It is however suggested that under conditions where 
disease is not a hazard tomatoes may be grown with maximum benefit 
without being staked and pruned. 
61 
A  G K N  O W L E D G E M E N  T .  
The writer wishes to thank Mr. J. S. Campbell for his 
invaluable advice and guidance throughout the duration of the 
experiment. 
He would also like to express his thanks to 
Mr. G. E. Hodnett who advised on the statistical design and to 
Mr. M. Benny who supervised the field work. 
1 

62 
A P P E N D I X  I .  
Plan and Layout of the Experiment. 
Bed 8. Bed 7. 
Block I. 
1 
S F 
2 
S M 
3 
Q M 
4 
P F 
5 
P R 
6 
Q R 
7 
QF 
8 
S R 
9 
P M 
LEGEND. 
Q F = Planting on the 
flat; no pruning, 
no staking. 
Q H = Moulding; no 
pruning, no 
staking. 
Q R = Ridging; no 
pruning, no 
staking 
P F = Planting on the 
flat; staking no 
pruning. 
P M = Moulding; staking 
no pruning. 
P R = Ridging; staking 
no pruning. 
S F = Planting on the 
flat; staking 
and pruning. 
Block II, 
10 I  
P M 
11 
P F 
12 
S R 
13 
S F 
14 
Q F 
15 
P R 
16 
S M 
17 
Q R 
18 
Q M 
Block III. 
1 
19 
P M 
20 
Q F 
21 
Q R 
22 
S R 
23 
P R 
24 
P F 
25 
S F 
26 
Q M 
27 
S M 
Bed 9. 
B l o c k  I v , - .  
28 
P R 
29 
Q M 
30 
Q R 
31 
S F 
32 
S R 
33 
P F 
34 
S M 
35 
0. F 
36 
P M 
w 
135' 
15 ft 
* i 
"1" 
S M = Moulding; staking 
and pruning. 
S R = Ridging; staking 
and pruning, 
N. 
- 63 -
A P P E N D I X  I I .  
c o S T S OF PR 0 D  U C  _T 1 0 N. 
Figures are derived from the records of 1/3 of an acre and converted 
to cost per acre. 
Operation. Post in Dollars (BWl). 
Raising of Seedlings. 
Preparation of nursery beds 8. A3 
Labour - application of fertilizer. 3.06 
Labour - building Shed and sowing. 25.29 
Thinning 27.27 
Labour - spraying perenox 2<,52 
Cost of seed - A o zs. "Ogier" 14.#4-0 
Cost of art. fertilizer - 30 lbs. 7.20 88.17 
Field operations and transplanting. 
Marking blocks and plots 25.02 
Making ridges 16.86 
Ridging Holing and transplanting. 85.53 
Cost of starter solution 7.29 
Cost of aldrin - -J- g allon. 5«52 1A0.22 
Operations during growth. 
Labour - spraying with perenox 36.03 
Labour - spraying with manzate 30.06 
Supplying. 9.27 
Application of fertilizer. 25.02 
Weeding and moulding 115.89 
Labour - irrigation 8.37 
Harvesting 185.67 
Cost of Art. fertilizer - 330 lbs. 79.20 
Cost of "perenox" 0.75 
Cost of "manzate" - 2 lbs. 20.OA 
Cost of "fosferno" - 150 ec. 5.25 
Cost of Dupont Spreader sticker - 32 ec. 2.AO 517.95 
Total expenses for cultivated operations 7A6.34 
64 -
Staking operations Cost in Dollars. 
Cutting stakes and transporting 100.02 
Staking 31*20 
Tying 37.71 
Cost of wrapping twine for tying 3*75 172.68 
Pruning 35.61 35.61 
Total expenses for staking and pruning operations 208,29 
Total expenses for whole experiment 954*63 
Cutlassing of the experimental beds was not costed for as 
the operation was given on contract to a local farmer who used the 
thrash to feed his Stock. Payment for the operation was therefore 
in kind. 
65 
A P P E N D I X  I I I .  
Value of Produce For Different Treatments. 
Figures are derived from 1/19 of an acre and converted to cost per acre. 
Date of 
harvest­
Price 
per lb. F L A T  M 0 U  L D R I D G E  
ing. on day 
of 
harvest­
ing in 
cents. 
Yield/Acre 
in 
lbs 
Total valu« 
in $. 
BWT. 
Yield/Acre 
in 
lbs. 
Tbtal 
value 
in $ 
BWI. 
Yield/Acre 
in 
lbs. 
Total value 
in 
$ BWT. 
4.2.58 50 361.00 180.50 256.50 128.25 399.00 199.50 
7.2.58 45 408.50 183.53 593.75 267.19 864.50 389.03 
11.2.58 25 1125.75 281.44 964.25 241.06 1349.00 337.25 
14.2.58 25 1277.75 319.44 1410.75 352.69 1363.25 340.81 
19.2.58 25 2370.25 592.56 3116.00 779.00 2455.75 613.94 
21.2.58 30 1838.25 459.56 1529.50 382.38 1805.00 541.50 
25.2.58 25 1890.50 472.63 1439.25 359.81 1985.50 496.38 
27.2.58 25 969.00 242.25 1054.50 263.63 1187.50 296.88 
3.3.58 26 931.00 242.06 1021.25 265.53 1230.25 319.87 
6.3.58 20 346.75 69.35 631.75 126.35 722.00 144.40 
10.3.58 20 370.50 74.10 593.75 118.75 308.75 61.75 
Total 11889.25 3117.72 12611.25 3284.64 13670.50 3741.31 
66 
(B) 
Date 
of 
Price per 
lb. on 
STAKING & PRUNING STAKING NO PRUNING NO STA KINGj NO PRUNING 
harvest­
ing 
day of 
harvest­
ing in 
Cents. 
Yield/Acre 
in lbs. 
Total 
Value 
in $ 
BWI. 
Yield/Acre 
in 
lbs. 
Total 
Value 
in $ 
BWI 
Yield/Acre 
in 
lbs. 
Total value 
in 
$ BWI. 
4.2.58 50 517.75 258.88 175.75 87.88 323.00 161.50 
7.2.58 45 627.00 282.15 574.75 258.64 665.00 299.25 
11.2.58 25 945.25 236.31 950.00 237.50 1543.75 385.94 
14.2.58 25 1187.50 296.88 1263.50 315.88 1610.25 402.56 
19.2.58 25 2479.50 619.88 3073.25 768.31 2389.25 597.31 
21.2.58 30 1624.56 487.35 1800.25 540.07 1748.00 524.40 
25.2.58 25 1306.25 326.56 2341.75 585.44 1667.25 416.81 
27.2.58 25 1040.25 260.06 1021.25 255.31 1149.50 287.38 
3.3.58 26 1467.75 381,62 983.25 255.65 722.00 187.72 
6.3.58 20 505.50 100.70 722.00 144.40 475.00 95.00 
10.3.58 20 769.50 153.90 475.00 95.00 28.50 5.70 
Total 12468.75 3404.29 13380.75 3544.08 12321.50 3363.57 
Average value of Crop for Different Treatments. 
Average price per lb. during season - 29 cents. 
Treatment Average value of crop 
in $ BWI. 
flat 344-9.88 
Mould 3657.26 
Ridge 3964.45 
Staking and pruning 3615.94 
Staking no pruning 3880.42 
No staking, no pruning 3573.24 
m 67 
A P P E  N  D  I  X  I V ,  
COST - PROFIT ANALYSIS For Staking and Pruning Treatments, 
ITEM Staking & Pruning Staking, No Pruning No Staking, 
No Pruning. 
Total value of 
early crop (fruit 
produced per 
acre during the 
first 4 pickings) 
in $ BWI, 
1074.22 899.90 1249.24 
Total value of 
fruit produced 
during the 
experiment in 
$ BWI. 
3516.94 3880.42 3573.24 
Total cost of 
production per 
acre in $ BWI. 
457.07 421.46 248.78 
Net income at 
end of Season 
in $ B-JI, 
3158.87 3458.96 3324.46 
- 68 -
B I B L I O G R A P H Y  
y Allerton, F. W. 
Anonymous 
Atkinson, J. D. 
et alj 
Babb, M.F. 
Baker, C.E. 
Barret, R.J.R. 
Blommestein, A.V. 
& 
E. F. Malan 
Boswell, V.R. 
Brasher, E. P. 
& 
K. C. Westover 
Butler, L. 
Campbell, J.S. 
Casseres, E.H. 
Tomato Growing, Faber, 1954. 
Agricultural Report, Antigua, 1949. 
Agricultural Report, St. KLtts, 1931. 
Agricultural Report, St. Vincent, 1911. 
Tomato Diseases and Pests in New Zealand 
and their control, 1949. 
Residual effect of forcing and hardening of 
tomatoes, cabbages, and cauliflower - U.S. 
Department. Agr. Tech. Bull. 760 - 1940. 
Early fruiting of tomatoes as induced by the use 
of soluble phosphates. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 
Proc. 35: 668 - 672. 1937. 
Investigations on dry-season tomato production 
in Trinidad - I.C.T.A. Unpublished Dissertation. 
1954/55. 
Tomato cultivation in the low veldf Fmg.» in 
S. Africa. 29: 287 - 294. 1954. 
Improvement and genetics of tomatoes, peppers 
and egg plant, - U.S. Dept. Agric. Year Book. 
pp. 176 - 206. 1937. 
Effect on yield of hardening the tomato plant, -
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. Proc. 35: 686 - 689. 1937. 
Inheritance of fruit size in the tomato -
Canadian Jour. Res. C., 19: 216-244. 1941. 
Report on the cultivation of vegetables in 
Montserrat. 1957. 
Effect of date of sowing, spacing and foliage 
trinming of plants in flats and on yield of 
tomatoes - Amer. Hort. Sci. Proc. 50f 285. 
1947. 
69 
Clayton, E.E. 
Chenery, E.M. 
Chin, E.S.A. 
Christidis, B.G. 
Cobley, L.S. 
Cochran, W.G. 
& 
G. M. Cox 
Craft, C.C. 
& 
P. H. Heinze 
Currence, T.M. 
Deoner, M. T. 
et al. 
Doolittle, S.P. 
Edgerton, C.V. 
& 
C.C. Moreland 
: Edwards, W.H. 
Evans, H.J. 
& 
R. V. Troxler. 
The relation of Temperature to the Fusarium wilt 
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Soils of Central Trinidad, 1952. 
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An Introduction to the Botany of Tropical Crops, 
1956. 
Experimental Designs, John Wiley & S ons, 1957. 
Physiological Studies of mature green tomatoes in 
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1954. 
The interactions between variety, spacing and staking 
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1920. 
Tomato pests and their control Dept. of Agri. Ext. 
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Relation of calcium nutrition to the incidence of 
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70 -
j Fenwich, J. S, 
Frazier, W.A. 
et al. 
Gilbert, J.C. 
& 
D. C. McGuire 
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1956/57, 
Seven new tomatoe varieties resistant to spotted 
wilt, fusarium wilt and Gray leaf spot - Uni, 
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Inheritance to severe root knot from .Meloidogyne 
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Grace, N. H. 
Halsey, L.H. 
et al. 
Hammer, K.C. 
et al. 
Hardy, F. 
& 
R.E.D. Baker 
Hawthorne, L.R. 
Hester, J.B, 
Physiologic curve of response to phytohormones by 
seeds, growing plants, cuttings and lower plant 
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Containers for shipping Florida tomatoes. Florida 
Agric. Ext. Sci. Bull. No.560. 1955. 
Effects of light intensity, day length, temperature, 
and other environmental factors on the ascorbic acid 
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1945. 
Report on a visit to the Colonial Development 
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Absorption of nutrients by the tomato plant at 
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71 
Hester, J.B. 
_ et al. 
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Era us, E.J. 
& 
H.R. Kraybill 
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G. Samuel. 
Larson, R.E. 
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Present cultural methods in growing spring green house 
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—«• . 
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72 
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et al. 
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