Belize National Standards and Curriculum Web for LANGUAGE ARTS Lower Division A publication of the Ministry of Education of Belize Copyright 2007 Copyright (2007) Belize Ministry of Education All Rights Reserved Published by QADS, Ministry of Education, Belize The reproduction of this document for sale is prohibited. Reproduction of all or part of this document for educational use within the territory of Belize is permitted. For more information contact QADS, P.O. Box 369, West Landivar, Belize City, Phone: 501-223-6970, Fax: 501-223-4532 Acknowledgements The following people contributed to the creation of this document: Mr John Newport, Ms Lavern Gillett, Ms Darlene Lozano, Mr Nelson Longsworth, Ms Ines Paquiul, Ms Shannon Solis and the staff of QADS. At various stages of its drafting, this document was reviewed by teachers, principals, managers, members of the University of Belize Faculty and Education and Arts and others. The Ministry of Education of Belize would like to thank all of these people for their contributions. TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction ...........................................................................................................1 Language Policy ......................................................................................................3 Content Standards and Lower Division Learning Outcomes ............................................5 Language Arts Content Standard Descriptions .....................................................8 Infant 1 Learning Outcomes ........................................................................... 13 Infant Two Learning Outcomes ....................................................................... 18 Standard 1 Learning Outcomes ....................................................................... 24 The Curriculum Web .............................................................................................. 29 Listening ..................................................................................................... 31 Viewing ....................................................................................................... 43 Speaking ..................................................................................................... 49 Reading ....................................................................................................... 75 Writing ...................................................................................................... 111 The Planning Guide ............................................................................................. 139 Using Curriculum Themes ............................................................................ 140 Advisory Scope and Sequence Charts ............................................................ 141 Sample Annual Plan for Infant I .................................................................... 151 Sample Unit Plan for Infant One .................................................................... 154 Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers ......................................... 157 Bibliography ....................................................................................................... 179 1 Introduction This document has two major purposes. The first is to define clear, specific and unambiguous standards for student achievement in language arts. The second is to serve as a teachers’ manual that is self explanatory and comprehensible to all of Belize’s primary school teachers, including those who have not had any formal teacher training. Three principles underpin the design of this document. These are: (1) Clear, specific and unambiguous standards for student achievement should be defined. (2) As much of the old curriculum as possible, especially the curriculum content should be preserved. (3) The document should serve as a teaching manual that a teacher can use to plan effective lessons without having to receive training on its interpretation. This book contains the following major parts: • Content Standards and Learning Outcomes for Lower Division. • A Curriculum Web • A Planning Guide • An Encyclpaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers The first part of the book sets the required standards for the teaching of language arts in Belize by outlining forty-five content standards that describe what students need to know and be able to do in order to achieve the overall goal of language arts teaching in Belize, which is as follows: GOAL 11 of the National Goals of Education in Belize By the end of primary school, all students should have the ability to communicate proficiently in English.1 The forty-five content standards define what is meant by “proficiency in English”. They outline, clearly and unambiguously, what needs to be taught and assessed in all schools and provide a framework for organizing curriculum content into instructional units and lessons. For each content standard, there are specific learning outcomes which are unique to each grade level. These learning outcomes specify the level that students are expected to achieve in each year as they progress towards attaining the overall goal of proficiency. Most lesson objectives will be based on the learning outcomes. However, content standards are designed for use not only by teachers but also by administrators, curriculum planners and principals. They can also be shared with students, for motivational purposes, with parents, so they can monitor the progress of their children, and with educational stakeholders and the general public so they can evaluate the success of the school system. Planning, instruction and assessment should be determined by the content standards and learning outcomes. In other words, it is mandatory for schools to design instruction with the aim of enabling students to achieve the relevant standards. However, this document does not dictate how teaching and assessing is to occur. Schools have the responsibility for designing instructional programmes and for selecting instructional approaches, methods and strategies that are appropriate for their particular students. 1 Handbook of Policies and Procedures for School Services(2000), Ministry of Education, Belize, p179 2 *** In addition to setting standards, this document provides advice on teaching strategies, learning activities, assessment strategies and resources. This advice is presented in a series of web-diagrams, one for each content standard, which are collectively called the Curriculum Web. Following the Curriculum Web, a planning guide gives scope and sequence charts for Infant I, Infant 2 and Standard 1, as well as a sample annual plan and unit plan for the beginning of Infant 1. Although these sections are advisory and schools may vary from the formats provided, all teachers are expected to have annual, unit and either weekly or daily lesson plans. All schools should revise the scope and sequence charts so they meet the needs of their particular students. This book’s final major part is an encyclopaedia of information for language arts teachers. This contains definitions and analysis of terms used in the curriculum. It also highlights recommended approaches, methods and strategies for instruction and assessment. Finally, it is important to note that this curriculum is designed for the teaching of Language Arts as an integrated subject. It is not appropriate for school timetables to contain separate subjects such as grammar, phonics, literature, spelling and creative writing. Similarly, when reporting to parents, schools should supply a grade for Language Arts, although this could be subdivided into other components, for example by giving a grade for oral skills based on listening and speaking and a grade for literacy skills based on viewing, reading and writing. 3 Language Policy General Statement on Language and Literacy Instruction for Students whose Home Language is not English. In accordance with the language policy of the Government of Belize (see below), when deciding whether to use languages other than English, teachers should be guided by the following three principles: 1. Proficiency in standard English by the end of primary school is the goal for all students in Belize. 2. Lower Division students may use any language to attain a language arts learning outcome unless “standard English” is explicitly stated in the curriculum. 3. By the end of lower division, students should be using standard English most of the time. Further Guidance In accordance with international best practice as outlined in the International Reading Association’s policy statement on second language literacy instruction, it is recommended that teachers of lower division students: 1. recognize that all students come to school with strengths in their home language; 2. plan language and literacy instruction that builds on students’ home language experiences, knowledge and skills, even when the that language is not the language of schooling; 3. where appropriate, provide initial language and literacy instruction in the a child’s home language; 4. where appropriate, evaluate students’ attainment of learning outcomes in the students preferred language; 5. in all situations, treat second-language learners respectfully and offer equal educational opportunities that honour basic general educational principles; 6. consider that bilingualism or multilingualism is desirable. 7. understand that the accumulated wisdom of research in the field of bilingualism suggests that while initial literacy learning in a second language can be successful, it is riskier than starting with the child’s home language— especially for those children affected by poverty, low levels of parental education, or poor schooling 4 The Government of Belize Language Policy Handbook of Policies and Procedures for School Services (2000) Chapter 1, Section 6.5 (p183-4) Language is essential to the intellectual development and socialisation of children and basic to all learning. It contributes to personal growth and cultural enrichment and is a major means of interpreting reality and expressing the unique experiences of individuals and of different cultural groups. Language is the major medium of communicating knowledge and ensuring contact between generations. Languages share many universal features that make all humans similar to each other and distinct from other living things. Skilled and proficient use of language also contributes to economic and social success. Languages, as communication tools, enable individuals who live in a multicultural society such as ours to communicate more effectively in a variety of situations related to work and leisure; they foster respect for diversity and an understanding of the role of culture. The application of language skills extends the range of an individual’s human relationships, resulting in a strong sense of personal achievement and satisfaction. As Belize moves into the twenty-first century emphasis will be placed on experiencing language in context. In the early elementary grades, students use background knowledge, skills and attitudes as a means of developing and facilitating communicative abilities. First languages are important vehicles for their transition from home to school. As they develop communication skills, they also increase their linguistic accuracy and develop language learning strategies. The Government of Belize, in keeping with the above: (a) acknowledges English as the official language of Belize and the “international language of communication and modern technology”, and will provide resources necessary to schools to enable all students to acquire, by the end of primary school, proficiency in the English language for personal, social, economic and academic interactions; (b) recognizes Belize’s geo-political situation and the status of Spanish as a major language of business and trade, and will support school and community efforts to enable students to acquire functional skills in the Spanish language by the end of primary school; and (c) respects the multicultural and multi-lingual nature of the country and the acknowledged wishes of members of the community who belong to a variety of cultural groups and will (i) encourage the use of native/home languages, where necessary, to facilitate learning, and (ii) support school and community efforts in fostering cultural preservation through the provision of time and space to teach native/home languages other than English and Spanish. 5 Content Standards and Lower Division Learning Outcomes Content Standards and Lower Division Learning Outcomes 7 Content Standards and Lower Division Learning Outcomes A content standard is a statement of what students need to know and be able to do at the end of their primary schooling. In this curriculum, each content standard refers to one of forty-five skill elements relating to language arts. The content standards have been categorized according to the most appropriate skill area as follows: Listening Content Standards 1 – 5 Viewing Content Standards 6 – 7 Speaking Content Standards 8 – 19 Reading Content Standards 20 – 33 Writing Content Standards 34 - 45 Each content standard has four components: (1) a number (2) a short title (3) a description of the skills covered (4) a series of numbered learning outcomes that specify exactly which components of the skill need to be achieved at each particular grade level. In this document, each content standard has a number from CS1 to CS45. Each learning outcome also has a unique number, with the numbers for Infant 2 following on from those of Infant 1. Put together, these two numbers give each learning outcome a unique code. For example, for first content standard: The number is CS1 The short title is Identify and Distinguish between Sounds The skills description is Hear, recognise and differentiate between speech sounds at a variety of levels ranging from phonemes to complete texts. CS1 has a total of 12 learning outcomes. Some examples are: CS1.1 Identify a series of words that begin with the same sound. (Infant 1) CS1.10 Divide two syllable words into syllables and clap the syllables of a short sentence. (Infant 2) The forty-five content standards define what is meant by “proficiency in English”. They outline, clearly and unambiguously, what needs to be taught and assessed, in all schools and provide a framework for organizing curriculum content into instructional units and lessons. The learning outcomes, which are unique to each grade level, specify what the students are expected to achieve in each year. Most of the time, lesson objectives will be based on these learning outcomes. Thus, the content standards and learning outcomes guide planning, instruction and assessment and it is mandatory for schools to design instruction with the aim of enabling students to achieve them. However, the content standards do not dictate how teaching and assessing is to occur. Schools have the responsibility for designing instructional programmes and for selecting instructional approaches, methods and strategies that are appropriate for their particular students. 8 Content Standards and Lower Division Learning Outcomes Language Arts Content Standard Descriptions Content Standard Number and Title Content Standard Description CS1 Identify and Distinguish between Sounds Hear, recognise and differentiate between speech sounds at a variety of levels ranging from phonemes to complete texts. CS2 Listen for Information Extract relevant information, including directions, main ideas and other details from a spoken text. CS3 Interpret and Evaluate Oral Presentations Discuss, interpret, evaluate and analyse oral presentations. CS4 Listen and Communicate Effectively and appropriately engage in conversations for a variety of purposes. CS5 Respond to Spoken Texts Connect spoken texts, including songs, speeches, poetry, drama and stories, to personal choices, experiences, emotions, ideas and moral values. CS6 Comprehend and Interpret Visual Images Discuss the purpose, usefulness and reliability of visual images and extract their apparent and/or covert meaning. CS7 Respond to Visual Images Connect visual images to personal choices, experiences, emotions, ideas and moral values. CS8 Ask and Answer Questions Ask and answer questions for a variety of purposes, for example, to elicit and clarify information and to negotiate. CS9 Express Opinions and Communicate Ideas Effectively and clearly state, develop, explain and justify opinions and ideas. CS10 Narrate Real and Fictional Events Effectively and clearly describe events and stories they have witnessed, heard, or invented. CS11 Deliver Reports and Speeches Prepare and confidently and effectively deliver formal reports and speeches for a variety of Content Standards and Learning Outcomes 9 Content Standard Number and Title Content Standard Description purposes on a variety of topics. CS12 Display Self-Esteem while Speaking Confidently engage in spoken discourse and show willingness to share and discuss ideas and opinions with familiar and unfamiliar people. CS13 Perform Drama Develop and role-play improvised skits and dramatically perform items from a prepared script. CS14 Recite Poetry Recite poetry with confidence and with appropriate pace, volume, intonation and stress CS15 Participate in Group Discussions Participate confidently, tolerantly and politely in class and small group discussions by sharing ideas, taking turns, listening and responding to the contributions of others. CS16 Pronounce Words Appropriately Pronounce words clearly and appropriately CS17 Use Correct Grammatical Structures in Use sentence structure, word order, agreement Speech patterns and other grammatical features correctly. CS18 Use Appropriate Styles and Registers in Choose and switch between appropriate styles Speech of speech, formal and informal registers, standard English, Kriol and other languages. CS19 Use Speech Prosody and Gesture While speaking, communicate meaning by using gesture and by varying voice tone, pace, volume, intonation and stress patterns CS20 Apply Phonics Knowledge Use knowledge of the relationship between letters and sounds to decode words in print CS21 Recognize Words by Sight Read words automatically and instantaneously, without having to decode or guess CS22 Use Context Clues Interpret and apply knowledge of visual images, vocabulary, grammar, the text's topic and textual features to deduce the meaning of an 10 Content Standards and Lower Division Learning Outcomes Content Standard Number and Title Content Standard Description unknown word or phrase. CS23 Display Word Power Use a range of vocabulary items to convey precise meaning, differentiate between words of similar meaning, homophones and homonyms, and analyse the structure of words. CS24 Use a Dictionary Use a dictionary to find information pertaining to the spelling, meaning, derivation, syllabication, parts of speech, inflection and pronunciation of words and to discover new words. CS25 Read Aloud Confidently, fluently and accurately read texts aloud, with appropriate rhythm, pacing, volume, intonation and stress. CS26 Select Appropriate Reading Material Independently select reading material that is appropriate to purpose and reading level by using textual information and background knowledge. CS27 Comprehend Fiction Texts Find, sequence and retell story information. CS28 Interpret Stories Discuss story plot, setting, characterization, structure and likely outcomes; and compare, contrast and evaluate different stories. CS29 Relate Personally to Stories Connect stories to personal choices, experiences, emotions, ideas and moral values. CS30 Read and Relate to Poetry Comprehend and interpret poetry, and make connections to personal choices, experiences, emotions, ideas and moral values. CS31 Comprehend Non-Fiction Texts Extract, sequence, synthesize and use information contained in non-fiction texts. CS32 Research from Non-Fiction Texts Locate information in non-fiction texts using knowledge of the features of a book or text, by using the internet, and by interpreting Content Standards and Learning Outcomes 11 Content Standard Number and Title Content Standard Description diagrams, tables and visual images. CS33 Analyse the Language, Nature and Evaluate and discuss the language, utility, Structure of Texts purpose, reliability and structure of written texts. CS34 Write Stories Compose stories using a variety of genres, techniques, structures and settings. CS35 Write Poetry Compose poetry, demonstrating an understanding of rhyme, metre, alliteration, and other devices. CS36 Write Letters Compose, with appropriate structure and language, letters for a range of social and professional purposes. CS37 Write Non-Fiction Write essays, journals, reports and other texts to instruct, inform, record, summarize, evaluate, discuss and persuade. CS38 Plan and Edit Writing Plan writing by selecting topics, considering purpose and audience, organizing thoughts, displaying and outlining information; and edit writing at word, sentence and text levels. CS39 Present Written Work Appropriately Neatly present written work according to established norms and conventions. CS40 Write Clearly and Legibly Form letters, words, and longer texts recognizably, neatly, and accurately in both cursive and print. CS41 Spell Words Appropriately Spell words in accordance with accepted conventions. CS42 Use Capital Letters Appropriately Appropriately use capital letters at the beginning of sentences and direct speech, for abbreviations and for the names of people, places, dates, books, titles, institutions, historical periods and events. 12 Content Standards and Lower Division Learning Outcomes Content Standard Number and Title Content Standard Description CS43 Use Punctuation Appropriately Appropriately use full stops, question, exclamation and quotation marks, commas, semi-colons and colons CS44 Apply Correct Grammatical Forms in Combine words into correctly structured Writing sentences using appropriate word endings, word order and other rules of language. CS45 Incorporate Stylistic Devices in Original Deploy and vary words, phrases and sentence Writing types for effect, including similes, metaphors and proverbs. Content Standards and Learning Outcomes 13 Infant 1 Learning Outcomes Note: Where there are no learning outcomes for a content standard, teachers can refer to the Infant 2 learning outcomes for guidance. CS.1 Identify and Distinguish between Sounds 1.1 Identify a series of words that begin with the same sound. 1.2 Listen to rhymes and songs to begin developing a sense of rhyme. 1.3 Identify a series of words that rhyme. 1.4 Discriminate between onsets and rimes in speech. 1.5 Identify and distinguish between the main 42 phonemes used in the English language. 1.6 Identify, orally, all the individual phonemes in consonant-vowel-consonant and vowel-consonant-vowel words. 1.7 Blend three phonemes together to make a word. 1.8 Understand the terms vowel and consonant as they relate to sounds. CS.2 Listen for Information 2.1 Follow simple, one and two step, oral directions. 2.2 State correct answers to literal comprehension questions in response to stories presented orally. CS.3 Interpret and Evaluate Oral Presentations 3.1 Establish good eye contact with a speaker. 3.2 Demonstrate awareness of whether a presenter is telling a story or dealing with a factual topic. CS4 Listen and Communicate No learning outcomes for this grade level CS.5 Respond to Spoken Texts 5.1 Recognize emotions, for example, happy, sad, or angry, of characters in stories presented orally. CS.6 Comprehend and Interpret Visual Images 6.1 Understand that visual images contain information. 6.2 Identify and differentiate shapes, sizes, letters, numbers, patterns (etc.) 6.3 Connect a visual image to a story text. CS.7 Respond to Visual Images 7.1 State whether they like or dislike a picture or whether it makes them feel happy or sad. 14 Content Standards and Lower Division Learning Outcomes CS.8 Ask and Answer Questions 8.1 Ask a teacher or familiar adult questions to obtain information or permission. 8.2 Follow an agreed procedure for asking and answering questions in class, for example by raising a hand and waiting for the teacher. 8.3 Answer questions, possibly using sentence fragments and gestures. CS.9 Express Opinions and Communicate Ideas 9.1 State likes, dislikes and preferences. CS.10 Narrate Real and Fictional Events 10.1 Describe a recent event during class "circle time" or to the teacher or familiar adult. 10.2 Briefly describe objects, animals, and places. CS.11 Deliver Reports and Speeches 11.1 Take part in "circle time" activities in which each student contributes an item. CS.12 Display Self-Esteem while Speaking 12.1 Speak in a natural, easy manner with children and adults with whom they are familiar. CS.13 Perform Drama 13.1 Individually, act out the meaning of a single word, for example, an action verb CS.14 Recite Poetry 14.1 Accompany rhymes and songs with simple actions. 14.2 Chorally, with the aid of the teacher, recite simple poems with actions. CS.15 Participate in Group Discussions 15.1 In a teacher led discussion, wait for someone else to finish talking and not interrupt them. CS.16 Pronounce Words Appropriately 16.1 During speech, clearly and correctly pronounce the main 42 phonemes (language sounds) of standard English. CS.17 Use Correct Grammatical Structures in Speech 17.1 State ideas in complete simple sentences. Content Standards and Learning Outcomes 15 CS.18 Use Appropriate Styles and Registers in Speech 18.1 Use appropriate forms for making requests (for example by saying please and thank you) and expressing needs. CS.19 Use Speech Prosody and Gesture 19.1 Speak with voice volume appropriate to the listener and the situation. CS.20 Apply Phonics Knowledge 20.1 Recognise and name all letters of the alphabet in upper and lower case 20.2 Recognise the most common letter-sound relationship for all the letters of the alphabet and for the digraphs ng, ck, ch, sh, th, ai, ee, ie (pie), oa, ue, ou (ouch), ar, er, or, oi, oo (moon and look) 20.3 Identify the initial sound and the corresponding letter of a spoken word, object or picture. 20.4 Blend a vowel and a consonant together to read a two letter word, for example, at, it, ma, pa, in, am 20.5 Blend letters by sound to read regularly spelt Consonant-Vowel-Consonant and Vowel-Consonant-Consonant words. 20.6 Read words with initial consonant clusters, br-, tr-, bl-, gl-, st-, sn-, and dr-. 20.7 Sound out most phonetically spelt one and two syllable words that contain short vowel sounds and long vowel sounds spelt using ai/ee/ie/oa/oo/a_e/i_e. 20.8 Read words ending with the consonant clusters, -nd, -lp, -st, -nk, -sp, and -nt. 20.9 Understand the terms vowel and consonant as they relate to letters and sounds. CS.21 Recognize Words by Sight 21.1 Track words on a page while listening to poetry, nursery rhymes and familiar, repetitive stories, being read aloud by another person. 21.2 Read on sight a range of familiar words, for examples, numbers one to twenty, labels, captions, names of familiar people, days of the week, and approximately fifty high frequency words from books. CS22 Use Context Clues 22.1 Identify the purpose of, a noun in written text. 22.2 Identify the purpose of, a verb in a written text. 22.3 Identify when a noun in a written text is plural. 22.4 Identify a pronoun in a written text. CS.23 Display Word Power 23.1 Recognize unusual words encountered in nursery rhymes and frequently read stories. CS.24 Use a Dictionary 24.1 Recite the names of letters in correct alphabetical order. 16 Content Standards and Lower Division Learning Outcomes CS.25 Read Aloud 25.1 Read consonant-vowel-consonant and vowel-consonant-consonant words and short sentences containing these words aloud to the teacher. 25.2 Individually and in chorus, read aloud words which are used on a regular basis, e.g. numbers, days, and weather words. 25.3 Read, or pretend to read to other people, dolls and toys. 25.4 Track text in the right order, i.e. left to right, top to bottom, page to page. 25.5 In chorus and along with the teacher, read a familiar short story or poem aloud. CS26 Select Appropriate Reading Material No learning outcomes for this grade level CS.27 Comprehend Fiction Texts 27.1 Re-enact familiar, simple, stories through role play. 27.2 Recall, word for word, phrases that are repeated several times in a simple story. 27.3 Recount, re-enact with toys, or sequence using pictures, the main events of a familiar nursery rhymes and stories CS.28 Interpret Stories 28.1 Discuss the causes of events in simple stories. 28.2 Predict the next section of a story with a repetitive, predictable pattern. CS.29 Relate Personally to Stories 29.1 Respond emotionally to stories and experience satisfaction, enjoyment, sadness, etc 29.2 State whether they like or dislike a story. CS.30 Read and Relate to Poetry 30.1 Connect the text of a poem to accompanying pictures. CS.31 Comprehend Non-Fiction Texts 31.1 Read and follow a simple, single step instruction. 31.2 Read simple, highly pictorial, non-fiction texts on familiar themes of interest. CS32 Research from Non-Fiction Texts No learning outcomes for this grade level CS.33 Analyse the Language, Nature and Structure of Texts 33.1 Understand the difference between fact and fantasy. CS.34 Write Stories 34.1 Illustrate a sentence or short story with a picture and add a caption made up of one or two letters or short words. Content Standards and Learning Outcomes 17 CS35 Write Poetry No learning outcomes for this grade level CS36 Write Letters No learning outcomes for this grade level CS.37 Write Non-Fiction 37.1 Label simple diagrams, for example of parts of the body. 37.2 Write simple, one or two word informational texts such as signs and directions. CS38 Plan and Edit Writing No learning outcomes for this grade level CS39 Present Written Work Appropriately No learning outcomes for this grade level CS.40 Write Clearly and Legibly 40.1 Demonstrate correct technique for holding a pencil 40.2 Develop motor skills through colouring, tracing and scribbling 40.3 Write slants, curves and letter-like shapes free-hand. 40.4 Write letters on a page from left to right and top to bottom. 40.5 Form the 26 upper and lower-case letters of the alphabet and numbers by tracing dots on a page 40.6 Distinguish in writing between easily confused letters, for example b, d, p, q. 40.7 Write on a line provided in a notebook. 40.8 Write with correct letter size and space using guidelines. 40.9 Form letters with the "tails" necessary for cursive writing. 40.10 Colour an outline shape while keeping between the lines. CS.41 Spell Words Appropriately 41.1 Include letter like forms or single letters when communicating through drawing. 41.2 Spell words using one or two feature letters, for example, first and last letters only. CS.42 Use Capital Letters Appropriately 42.1 Use a capital letter for the beginning of their own name. 42.2 Differentiate between capital and lower case letters. CS43 Use Punctuation Appropriately No learning outcomes for this grade level CS44 Apply Grammatical Forms Correctly No learning outcomes for this grade level CS45 Incorporate Stylistic Devises in Original Writing No learning outcomes for this grade level 18 Content Standards and Lower Division Learning Outcomes Infant Two Learning Outcomes Note: Where there are no learning outcomes for a content standard, teachers can refer to the Infant 1 or Standard 1 learning outcomes for guidance. CS.1 Identify and Distinguish between Sounds 1.9 Generate a new rhyme from a prompt word. 1.10 Divide two syllable words into syllables and clap the syllables of a short sentence. CS.2 Listen for Information 2.3 Perform a simple procedure after listening to a description of it. 2.4 Recall one or two important points after listening to a short spoken text. 2.5 Identify main characters and events in stories presented orally. CS.3 Interpret and Evaluate Oral Presentations 3.3 Identify the mood and tone of speech 3.4 Sit quietly and be attentive to a presenter. CS.4 Listen and Communicate 4.1 Demonstrate courteous listening behaviours in small group situations. CS.5 Respond to Spoken Texts 5.2 Answer simple questions about their feelings in response to stories and poetry presented orally 5.3 Predict outcomes of familiar, repetitive stories presented orally. 5.4 Retell/dramatize parts of stories heard. CS.6 Comprehend and Interpret Visual Images 6.4 Follow instructions given by the means of gestures, symbols and pictures. 6.5 Select or draw a series of pictures to retell a story CS.7 Respond to Visual Images 7.2 Express a point of view based on viewing a picture. Content Standards and Learning Outcomes 19 CS.8 Ask and Answer Questions 8.4 Ask a partner simple questions to acquire information using who, what, when, where, and how. 8.5 Ask a partner questions about a topic of interest. 8.15 Give appropriate spoken responses to greetings, instructions and requests. CS.9 Express Opinions and Communicate Ideas 9.2 Use complete sentences of five or more words to express ideas, preferences and needs. CS.10 Narrate Real and Fictional Events 10.3 Describe a picture using complete sentences. 10.4 Calmly describe a recently witnessed event. CS.11 Deliver Reports and Speeches 11.2 Give simple reports about current weather conditions. CS.12 Display Self-Esteem while Speaking 12.2 Demonstrate feelings of self-worth and express ideas confidently. 12.3 Express humour and other appropriate feelings CS.13 Perform Drama 13.2 Role play simple situations with at least one other person, for example "at school", "at the store," etc. CS.14 Recite Poetry 14.3 Play with rhyme by changing familiar poems and nursery rhymes. 14.4 In a group, memorize a short poem for public performance, e.g. to a group of parents or at the Festival of Arts. CS.15 Participate in Group Discussions 15.2 In small group or class discussion wait for someone else to finish talking and not interrupt them. CS16 Pronounce Words Appropriately No learning outcomes for this grade level CS.17 Use Correct Grammatical Structures in Speech 17.2 Form the plural of most nouns correctly while speaking standard English. 17.3 Modify a noun with an adjective in a spoken sentence. 20 Content Standards and Lower Division Learning Outcomes CS18 Use Appropriate Styles and Registers in Speech No learning outcomes for this grade level CS19 Use Speech Prosody and Gesture No learning outcomes for this grade level CS.20 Apply Phonics Knowledge 20.10 Read words containing vowel digraphs ea (seat), a_e (cake) ay (day), ew (flew), oy (boy), ow (cow & low), 20.11 Note that most vowel sounds, especially the long vowel sounds (ai, ee, ie, oa, ue), have a range of alternative spellings and apply this knowledge when decoding unfamiliar words. 20.12 Sound out two syllable words that are spelt using conventional consonant, "short" vowel and commonly occurring "long" vowel letter representations 20.13 Read words ending in -ss -ck -ff -ll 20.14 Discriminate between words beginning with hard/soft c and g 20.15 Recognize words ending with common spelling patterns, e.g. -old, -ing, -op, -end, -and. CS.21 Recognize Words by Sight 21.3 Read on sight and understand the meaning of words containing the endings -s (plural), -ing (continuous tense), and -ed (past tense) 21.4 Read on sight approximately one hundred high frequency words including numbers, seasons, months of the year, common colour words and the name of the school. CS.22 Use Context Clues 22.5 Identify, and explain the purposes of, full stops and question marks in written texts. 22.6 Identify a proper noun in a written texts. 22.7 Identify, and explain the purpose of, an adjective in a written text. 22.8 Use visual images to predict the meaning of unfamiliar words. 22.9 Identify a compound word in a written text. CS.23 Display Word Power 23.2 Show interest in learning about new words encountered in reading. 23.3 Read and understand common compound words and split them into their component parts, e.g. himself, handbag, teaspoon. 23.4 Identify the opposites of familiar words. CS.24 Use a Dictionary 24.2 Place words that begin with different letters in correct alphabetical order. 24.3 With help, find information in simple dictionaries with illustrations. Content Standards and Learning Outcomes 21 CS.25 Read Aloud 25.6 Read simple stories independently, pointing to words as they read. 25.7 Understand that a line of text and a sentence are not the same thing. 25.8 Pronounce the majority of phonetically spelt, one and two syllable words, correctly. 25.9 Follow words with eyes without having to point. 25.10 Individually read aloud sentences from a familiar story or poem to a group or the whole class. CS.26 Select Appropriate Reading Material 26.1 Select and read for pleasure stories with familiar, repetitive and predictable patterns. 26.2 With guidance, select books appropriate to their interest and reading level from a shelf of books in the classroom.. 26.3 Choose to frequently reread favourite stories and non-fiction books. CS.27 Comprehend Fiction Texts 27.4 Retell, in the correct order, the main events of a simple story. 27.5 Recall one or two important points after listening to a short text. CS.28 Interpret Stories 28.3 Discuss the connections between events in stories. 28.4 State, with reasons, whether they think a character is good or bad. CS29 Relate Personally to Stories No learning outcomes for this grade level CS.30 Read and Relate to Poetry 30.2 Read aloud a short, single verse, poem. CS31 Comprehend Non-Fiction Texts No learning outcomes for this grade level CS.32 Research from Non-Fiction Texts 32.1 List one or two pieces of information from a short non-fiction text. CS33 Analyse the Language, Nature and Structure of Texts No learning outcomes for this grade level CS.34 Write Stories 34.2 Compose several original sentences based on a picture. 34.3 Illustrate a story with a picture and write a caption using real or invented spelling. 22 Content Standards and Lower Division Learning Outcomes CS.35 Write Poetry 35.1 List sets of rhyming words. 35.2 Compose simple rhyming couplets. CS.36 Write Letters 36.1 Create a birthday or Christmas card with an original message. CS.37 Write Non-Fiction 37.3 Write short lists for a specified purpose, for example, a shopping list. 37.4 Write a few words or a sentence describing a recent experience. 37.5 Compose several original sentences describing a familiar person. 37.6 Write several sentences on one idea, picture or topic, using invented spelling where necessary. CS.38 Plan and Edit Writing 38.1 Discuss what they intend to write, with a teacher and/or peer, before writing it. CS.39 Present Written Work Appropriately 39.1 Head work with items copied from a worksheet or the board. 39.2 Develop a sense of pride in presenting neat and attractive written work. 39.3 Underline heading and rule off work. 39.4 Create a simple picture book with original words or sentences and having the appearance of a book, for example with a front cover, title, and the author's name. CS.40 Write Clearly and Legibly 40.11 Form the 26 upper and lower-case letters of the alphabet and numbers without tracing. 40.12 Legibly copy print sentences from the board. 40.13 Join some letters to others, cursively, for example, c, a, o, l. CS.41 Spell Words Appropriately 41.3 Spell words phonetically, so that all the sounds are represented by a least one letter. 41.4 Write captions for their own drawings, using invented spelling where necessary. Content Standards and Learning Outcomes 23 CS.42 Use Capital Letters Appropriately 42.3 Avoid inappropriately using capital letters in the middle of words and sentences. 42.4 Use capital letters for names of people. 42.5 Use capital letters for names of places, days and months. 42.6 Use capital letters at the beginning of sentences. 42.7 Use capital letter for the word “I”. CS.43 Use Punctuation Appropriately 43.1 Use a full stop at the end of a telling sentence. 43.2 Appropriately use question marks. CS.44 Apply Correct Grammatical Forms in Writing 44.1 Form the plural of nouns by adding -s. 44.2 Use appropriate word order for simple subject-verb-object sentences in original writing. 44.3 Correctly use the articles a and an in original writing. 44.4 Appropriately substitute the nouns with the pronoun "it" and "them" in original writing. CS.45 Incorporate Stylistic Devices in Original Writing 45.1 Modify a noun with an adjective in an original sentence. 24 Content Standards and Lower Division Learning Outcomes Standard 1 Learning Outcomes Note: Where there are no learning outcomes for a content standard, teachers can refer to the Infant 2 or Standard 2 learning outcomes for guidance. CS1 Identify and Distinguish between Sounds No learning outcomes for this grade level CS.2 Listen for Information 2.6 Accurately write a sentence that is dictated. 2.7 Draw a picture with several elements described by another person. 2.8 Recall information from stories, poems and non-fiction texts presented orally. CS.3 Interpret and Evaluate Oral Presentations 3.5 Listen politely to a variety of speakers. CS.4 Listen and Communicate 4.2 Distinguish between types of speech, including casual conversation, writing and jokes. 4.3 Respect the views of others especially when they disagree, and be courteous to and thoughtful of others. CS.5 Respond to Spoken Texts 5.5 Discuss the emotions they feel when listening to stories, poems and non fiction texts presented orally. CS.6 Comprehend and Interpret Visual Images 6.6 Determine the sequence and main idea of a story told entirely in pictures. 6.7 Tell a story or sequence of events based on a series of pictures. CS.7 Respond to Visual Images 7.3 Identify and discuss the emotions of story characters or real people depicted pictorially. CS.8 Ask and Answer Questions 8.7 Maintain a conversation with a series of short exchanges. CS.9 Express Opinions and Communicate Ideas 9.3 Express and explore ideas based on the imagination. 9.4 Give simple reasons for their ideas based on direct observation or concrete experience. CS.10 Narrate Real and Fictional Events 10.5 Using several sentences consecutively, describe an incident or tell a story based on recent or past own experience, in an audible voice. CS.11 Deliver Reports and Speeches 11.3 Give a short report on a favourite topic to the rest of the class. CS.12 Display Self-Esteem while Speaking 12.4 Demonstrate an ability to express ideas to people with whom they are not very familiar, for example visitors to the school. 12.5 Talk freely and easily about personal or group experiences and demonstrate a willingness and eagerness to speak. CS.13 Perform Drama 13.3 In a small group, develop and perform simple role play based on a recent event or news item. CS.14 Recite Poetry 14.5 When reciting, assume appropriate posture to aid voice and breath control. 14.6 Individually, recite simple poems with actions, either from memory or from a text. CS.15 Participate in Group Discussions 15.3 Work alongside other students in a group, sharing equipment. CS.16 Pronounce Words Appropriately 16.2 Consistently pronounce commonly encountered words appropriately and clearly. CS.17 Use Correct Grammatical Structures in Speech 17.4 Apply appropriate present, past and future tense forms of verbs when speaking standard English 17.5 Modify a noun with two or more adjectives in a spoken sentence. CS.18 Use Appropriate Styles and Registers in Speech 18.2 Use the telephone intelligently and courteously for a variety of purposes using appropriate forms of language. CS.19 Use Speech Prosody and Gesture 19.2 Indicate, by varying the tone and pitch of the voice, when a question is being asked. 26 Content Standards and Lower Division Learning Outcomes CS.20 Apply Phonics Knowledge 20.16 Read words with common end clusters, for example -ld, -lk, -sk, -mp, -sp, -ct, -ft, -lt, -pt, -xt, -lf, -nch, -lth. 20.17 Read words with common initial consonant clusters, for example, cl, cr, fl, fr, gl, gr, pl, pr, sc, scr, sk, sl, sm, sp, spl, spr, squ, str, sw, tw, thr, shr. 20.18 Read words containing the spelling patterns: ur (burn), ear (hear), ere (there), are (scare), air (fair), oor (floor), aw (law), au (caught), ore (more), ea (bread) 20.19 Read words containing the spelling patterns ph, wh, kn, igh, ough, hard ch (choir), and words in which s, si, and ti represent a soft "j" or a "sh" sound as in vision, pleasure, station 20.20 Use knowledge of similar words to read unfamiliar words correctly, e.g. getting slight from light, shroud from loud, etc. CS21 Recognize Words by Sight 21.5 Read on sight approximately one hundred and fifty high frequency words including many that are not phonetically spelt. CS.22 Use Context Clues 22.10 Use knowledge of common prefixes and suffixes to identify the meaning of a word. 22.11 Use background knowledge of the topic to identify the meaning of an unknown word. 22.12 Identify, and explain the purpose of, coordinating conjunctions, for example, and, or, but, in written texts. CS23 Display Word Power No learning outcomes for this grade level CS.24 Use a Dictionary 24.4 Place a series of words that begin with the same letter in correct alphabetical order. CS.25 Read Aloud 25.11 When reading aloud, expect sentences to make sense and re-read when they do not. 25.12 When reading aloud, recognize that full-stops and capital letters mark the beginning and end of sentences and pause at full- stops. 25.13 Individually read aloud a familiar short story. 25.14 Pronounce the majority of phonetically spelt words and common irregularly spelt words correctly. 25.15 Show awareness of the audience when reading aloud. CS.26 Select Appropriate Reading Material 26.4 Independently, select fiction and non-fiction books appropriate to their interest and reading level from a shelf of books in the classroom. CS.27 Comprehend Fiction Texts 27.6 Describe characters encountered in a story, using original words. CS.28 Interpret Stories 28.5 Discuss multiple causes of an event in a story. 28.6 Discuss the main theme of a story. 28.7 Based on the plot, discuss why events happen the way they do in a simple story. 28.8 Evaluate, with reasons, the actions of story characters, for example, if they were brave/foolish/selfish/generous, or acted in reasonable or unreasonable ways. CS.29 Relate Personally to Stories 29.3 Link events and characters in stories to their own experience. CS.30 Read and Relate to Poetry 30.3 Read a short poem and discuss its meaning CS.31 Comprehend Non-Fiction Texts 31.3 Read and follow a set of instructions telling them to perform three consecutive actions. CS.32 Research from Non-Fiction Texts 32.2 List the key points from a short non-fiction text. CS.33 Analyse the Language, Nature and Structure of Texts 33.2 Recognize that "fairy stories" and other traditional stories often follow a similar pattern and often have distinctive beginning, middle and ending structures. CS.34 Write Stories 34.4 Compose an original story, of at least five sentences, based on a picture, another story or personal experience, and illustrate it with a picture. 34.5 Rewrite a familiar story using original words. CS.35 Write Poetry 35.3 Compose short poems that rhyme. CS.36 Write Letters 36.2 Create greeting cards for a variety of purposes, for example get well, congratulations, birthdays and anniversaries. 36.3 Write a short letter to a friend to invite them to an event, to accept and invitation or to express thanks 28 Content Standards and Lower Division Learning Outcomes CS.37 Write Non-Fiction 37.7 Write a short non-fiction text, presenting ideas in a logical, sequential order. 37.8 Keep a daily record (journal) of events. 37.9 Write a paragraph describing a recent experience. 37.10 Write a paragraph describing interests. CS.38 Plan and Edit Writing 38.2 Generate ideas relevant to a topic by brainstorming. CS.39 Present Written Work Appropriately 39.5 Use margins appropriately. 39.6 Head papers in a manner prescribed by the teacher, for example by putting their name, class, the date and the title of the work being completed. 39.7 Indent paragraphs. CS.40 Write Clearly and Legibly 40.14 Join most letters to form cursive writing. 40.15 Develop a neat, legible handwriting. CS.41 Spell Words Appropriately 41.5 Appropriately form plurals by adding -es and by changing y/ey to ies in original writing. 41.6 Spell common, irregularly spelt words, for example days of the week, numbers and question words correctly. CS.42 Use Capital Letters Appropriately 42.8 Use capital letters for the names of streets, buildings and other geographical features. CS.43 Use Punctuation Appropriately 43.3 Appropriately use commas in a series of adjectives or nouns. 43.4 Use an apostrophe in common contractions. CS.44 Apply Correct Grammatical Forms in Writing 44.5 Appropriately use simple present and simple past forms of the verbs be, do, and have in original writing. 44.6 Construct simple noun-verb-noun sentences correctly in original writing CS.45 Incorporate Stylistic Devices in Original Writing 45.2 Modify a noun with two or more adjectives in an original sentence. The Curriculum Web 31 Listening CS1 Identify and Distinguish between Sounds CS2 Listen for Information CS3 Interpret and Evaluate Oral Presentations CS4 Listen and Communicate CS5 Respond to Spoken Texts 32 1 Identify & Distinguish between Sounds General Comments This content standard is closely linked to CS20 Apply Phonics Knowledge. CS1 focuses on the sounds of spoken language and CS20 on how those sounds are written. Good phonics knowledge depends on a good Content Standard 1 understanding of the different ways sounds are put together to make up spoken language (phonological Identify and distinguish awareness), and especially on how individual English between sounds words are made up of around 42 building-block sounds (phonemes). For students to develop an understanding of Hear, recognize and phonemes (phonemic awareness), they need to be differentiate between able to divide spoken language into different levels, for example, into sentences, words, syllables, onsets speech sounds at a and rimes. Thus, learning about rhyme and syllables variety of levels ranging is an important part of the process of learning to read. from phonemes to complete texts. It must be remembered that phonological awareness activities, and even phonics, are not sufficient to produce good readers. Teachers must maintain a balanced approach that recognizes the importance of comprehension and enjoyment as much as explicit language skills. Definitions Onset: the initial consonant cluster of a syllable. Rime: everything following an initial consonant cluster. Where there is no onset, the whole of a syllable is the rime. Assessment Internet Resources Key skills to assess include the ability to: For a clear articles on phonological awareness - Identify and generate words with similar instruction, see beginning sounds and rhymes. http://www.ldonline.org/article/6254; - Blend and segment, into phonemes, www.reading.org/resources/issues/positions_phonemi consonant-vowel-consonant and vowel- c.html; consonant-vowel words http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/phoemic. - Divide words into speech syllables. p.k12.4.html Other Resources Phonological awareness is usually taught as part of a phonics programme, such as Fast Phonics. 33 Sample Lesson Objectives 1.1 After listening to a story, students will identify words in it that begin L with the /ch/ sound. 1.6 After hearing words spoken by the teacher, the students will identify the individual phonemes. 1.10 As a short sentence is read aloud the students will clap each syllable. Le arning Outcomes Infant 1 Sample Teaching Strategies 1.1 Identify a series of words that begin with the same sound. Stories: When a new sound is introduced, tell a story 1.2 Listen to rhymes & songs to with many words containing that sound. Ask students begin developing a sense of to list all the words they heard with that sound, then rhyme. read the story again and have them concentrate on 1.3 Identify a series of words that spotting the relevant words. rhyme. Rhymes: Lower division students should encounter many songs, jingles, poems, and stories that contain 1.4 Discriminate between onset & rhymes and alliteration. rimes in speech. Phoneme Flashcards: Flashcards that have a picture 1.5 Identify and distinguish and a large dot for each sound can help students who between the main 42 phonemes are finding segmenting words into phonemes difficult. used in the English Language. Thus, a picture of a cat would be accompanied by three 1.6 Identify, orally, all the large dots; shop would also have three dots. individual phonemes in Explicit Phonological Awareness Teaching: Work on consonant-vowel-consonant and phonemes is an integral part of phonics teaching (CS20). Students who are struggling with phonics will vowel-consonant-vowel words. probably benefit from additional, explicit work on 1.7 Blend three phonemes together recognizing the sounds in words. However, many to make a word. students may find repetitive whole-class phonemic 1.8 Understand the terms vowel & awareness teaching boring and demotivating. consonant as they relate to sounds. Infant 2 1,9 Generate a new rhyme from a Sample Student Activities prompt word. Phoneme Games: .List words with similar 1.10 Divide two syllable words into beginning/middle/ending sounds (or onsets and rimes) syllables and clap syllables of a Phoneme Substitution:. Change the initial/middle/ending sound to make a new word (row>sow, man>map, short sentence. pin>pen, etc Phoneme Addition: Add a sound to make a new word: Standard 1 ink>pink, rip>trip, etc This content standard has no learning I Spy: I spy with my little eye, something beginning with outcomes for Standard 1. ...(sound) Rhyming: Think of a word that rhymes with . . . Clapping Syllables: Clap the syllables in words/sentences Clapping Sounds: Clap the number of sounds in a word, or Linkages put one coin in a box for each sound. CS14(S) Recite Poetry Surprise Bag: Surprise bag of items beginning/ending with CS16(S) Pronounce words appropriately the same sound. Word Play: Invent new words that rhyme with known CS20(R) Apply Phonics Knowledge words. 34 2 Listen for Information General Comments This content standard refers to the students’ ability to understand the literal meaning of spoken texts. To achieve this, students need many opportunities to listen to and interact with a wide a variety of types of speech. Content Standard 2 For lower division students to understand spoken Listen for texts, the speaker’s delivery usually has to be clear Information and the vocabulary has to be appropriate to children’s level. The spoken texts should not contain irrelevant Extract relevant information and should usually follow a sequential or chronological order. As students grow older, they information, including should be able to cope with increasingly complex directions, main ideas spoken texts. and other details from Effective lessons based around listening to a spoken spoken text. text usually follow a sequence of pre-listening activities, during listening activities and post-listening activities. Definition Spoken Text: A coherent stretch of speech on any topic. For example, announcements, apologies, awards, conversations, dialogues, directions, discussions, drama, explanations, instructions, interviews, invitations, jokes, riddles, rules, slogans, songs, speeches, storytelling, talking circles, voice mail messages, weather forecasts, and so on. Assessment The key skill to assess is the students’ literal comprehension speech and texts read aloud. Assessment Activities Observation: The teacher should use any opportunity to observe students following and responding to directions given orally. Internet Resources Listening Worksheets: On a worksheet with 6 rows An excellent booklet on teaching of 4 different pictures, students circle the object listening can be downloaded from the that the teacher names. UK Standards Site: Questioning: The teacher should monitor students’ http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/pr answers to literal comprehension questions. imary/publications/literacy/818497/p Repetition: Students repeat a text they have just ns_speaklisten062403hbk.pdf listened to. Recall: Students list characters in a story read Also try: aloud or other significant details. http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk 35 Sample Lesson Objectives 2.1 Students will listen to and follow a two step L direction. 2.4 Students will recall two events after listening to the story, “John’s Treasure”, Sample Teaching Strategies Learning Outcomes Reading stories and short non-fiction texts aloud to students is central to developing students’ listening Inf ant 1 skills. 2.1 Follow simple one and two step Listening Environment: Ensure a good listening directions. environment by focusing students’ attention on the 2.2 State correct answers to literal activity and by minimizing disruptions. Topic Discussion: Introduce and discuss the topic to comprehension questions in build on the students’ previous knowledge. response to stories presented Guided Listening: Establish the purpose for listening by orally. setting guiding questions or by telling the students what they have to listen out for. Inf ant 2 Highlight Key Features: While saying/reading a text, 2.3 Perform a simple procedure emphasise key parts of it by varying voice intonation, after listening to a description pace and stress. If the students cannot complete their of it. tasks after the first listening, repeat the text several times 2.4 Recall one or two important points after listening to a short Note that asking young children to “listen and spoken text. remember” can make them anxious and place great 2.5 Identify main characters and strain on their memory: the working memory of lower events in stories presented division students is relatively undeveloped. It is better orally. to give the students specific points to listen out for. Sta ndard 1 2.6 Accurately write a sentence that is dictated. Sample Student Activities The following activities all help students develop basic 2.7 Draw a picture with several listening skills. elements described by another Task completion: Students have to perform an action person. after listening to instruction. 2.8 Recall information from stories, Colouring: Ask the students to colour pictures according poems and non-fiction texts to your instructions. presented orally. Information Gap Games: Give students a worksheet with blank spaces to write or colour in according to your directions. Listen and Draw: Two students sit back to back. One describes a picture, the other tries to draw what is being described. Linkages Simon Says: and similar games in which students have CS3(L) Interpret speech and to listen carefully to instructions in order to succeed. evaluate speakers Oral Cloze: Oral “fill in the blanks” exercises can prompt children to listen for key information. CS5(L) Respond to spoken texts Song Key Words: Give students some words on cards. CS27(R) Comprehend fiction texts Tell them that only some of the words are in the song. CS31(R) Comprehend non-fiction Sing the song (twice or three times) and ask students texts to select the words they heard. 36 3 Interpret and Evaluate Oral Presentations General Comments This content standard refers mostly to the students’ ability to extract information from a formal presentation, usually one by someone who Content Standard 3 is not the class teacher. Interpret and Evaluate While listening to a presentation, young students Oral Presentations learn by connecting what they are hearing to what they already know. Consequently, young students are unlikely to benefit from a presentation unless they have some knowledge of Discuss, interpret, and a strong interest in the topic. This knowledge and interest can be built up by having evaluate and analyse oral lessons about the same topic on the days before presentations. the presentation occurs. Note that, as with all the content standards, other lessons, for example, social studies, may be used to teach the learning outcomes. For lower division students, it is appropriate to bring in familiar adults, for example grandparents, other family members and people from the local community and churches. Assessment Observation: Teachers should observe and monitor students’ behaviour and attitude during presentations. At a higher level, students can be assessed by their responses to the speaker. Internet Resources Sites dedicated to teaching English as a second or foreign language often contain good advice on constructing listening activities. Much of the commentary on this page was drawn from the work of Brewster, Ellis & Girard. 37 Sample Lesson Objectives 3.3 After listening to a presentation, students will discuss how they felt. L 3.4 & 3.5 During a presentation, students will demonstrate good “listening behaviour”. Sample Teaching Strategies Learning Outcomes Set specific listening tasks for each of the three stages: Infant 1 pre-listening, while-listening, post listening. 3. 1 Establish good eye contact with a speaker. Pre-listening: 3. 2 Demonstrate awareness of Build Listening Confidence: Students should be helped to whether a presenter is telling a understand that it is not important for them to understand story or dealing with a factual or remember everything a speaker says. topic. Establish Purpose: The reason for listening should be explained to the students so that they are clear why they are listening and what the main point or purpose of the In fant 2 activity is. 3. 3 Identify the mood and tone of K-W-L Charts (See CS5) speech. 3. 4 Sit quietly and be attentive to a While Listening: presenter. Questions: Set questions that students need to find the answers for. Standard 1 Post Listening: 3. 5 Listen politely to a variety of Questions: Students ask the presenter questions. speakers. Discussion: Students discuss what they learnt Display: Create a classroom display about the presentation. Letters: Student can write letters to the presenter, for example thanking him/her. They can also be involved in writing letters when the presenter is first invited. Listing: Students write, in list form, what they remember from the presentation. Sample Student Activities Linkages CS2(L) Listen for Information Explicit Strategy Instruction: Help students develop CS5(L) Respond to spoken texts specific strategies for listening. Look at the speaker, pay attention and concentrate CS11(S) Deliver reports and Listen quietly speeches Make pictures in their heads about what they are CS31(R) Comprehend non-fiction hearing. texts Think of questions to ask CS329R) Research from non-fiction Guess intelligently: Use what you already know texts about the topic to help you understand what is CS37(W) Write non-fiction being presented. 38 4 Listen and Communicate General Comments This content standard focuses on the students’ abilities to work constructively with a partner or in small and large groups. It is closely linked to CS15: Participate in Group Discussions. Content Standard 4 Student-centred teaching creates more opportunities for Listen and students to work cooperatively alongside and Communicate collaboratively with their peers than teacher-centred methods, which rarely create opportunities for students to develop social listening skills. Effectively and Pair work and group work allow students to develop a appropriately engage in positive self concept as they explore the content of the conversations for a lesson and learn to work with others. Pair and group tasks should be carefully explained and structured. They are variety of purposes. likely to be successful if they have a clearly stated purpose and if they are based around a content theme of interest to the students. Classroom learning centres can also provide opportunities for students to develop good listening and communication skills. Ideally, students should use the centres during lessons, not just during breaks. Asse ssment The k ey skill to assess is listening behaviour. Asse ssment Strategies/Activities Ob serve the students’ behaviour in small group and whole class situations, noting especially their compliance with established rules for listening. Note that it is not necessary for group tasks to have a written outcome for assessment to occur. Internet Resources The British Council/BBC web-site has a useful page at: http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/listen /listen_yl.shtml Also see: http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/ela/listenin g01.html 39 Sample Lesson Objectives 4.1 & 4.3 Students will listen politely and L attentively to their peers during morning circle. Le arning Outcomes Sample Teaching Strategies Rules for Listening: Establish class rules for morning In fant 1 circle and other listening activities. Discuss these rules Th ere are no Infant One learning with the students and come to a shared understanding of ou tcomes for this content standard. why they are necessary. Possible rules include: (1) listen to the speaker, (2) think about the speakers’ ideas (3) In fant 2 think of questions to ask, (4) wait for your turn. 4. 1 Demonstrate courteous Discuss Listening: Explicitly discuss effective listening listening behaviour in small strategies and good “listening” questions including, group situations. “What do you think?” “What is your opinion?” “Do you have any ideas?” The teacher should model these strategies and questions and encourage students to use St andard 1 them. 4. 2 Distinguish between types of Create a Listening Friendly Environment: Assess the speech, including casual classroom environment. Are there barriers to listening, conversation, writing and jokes. for example the lay-out of the desks or background noise? Can these obstacles be changed or minimized? 4.3 Respect the views of others especially when they disagree, and be courteous to and thoughtful of others. Sample Student Activities Morning Circle: Each morning give the students a chance to share news, ideas and information with the rest of the class. Over the course of a week, every student should contribute at least one item. Because one of the aims of morning circle is to encourage a classroom culture of respectful listening, it is important that the same students do not always dominate the discussion. Role Play: Set up common situations, for example a shop, Linkages for simple role plays. CS2(L) Listen for information Interviews: Students can interview their friends to find out CS3(L) Interpret and evaluate oral information, for example, their favourite colour. Students presentations can record the results by colouring boxes or putting ticks CS5(L) Respond to spoken texts next to pictures. Repeat the story: One student tells a story to a small CS8(S) Ask and answer questions group. The other students have to retell the story when it CS9(S) Express opinions and express ideas is finished. CS12(S) Display self-esteem while speaking CS15(S) Participate in group discussions CS19(S) Use speech prosody and gesture 40 5 Respond to Spoken Texts Content Standard 5 General Comments For CS5, the teacher should focus on helping Respond to Spoken students understand, discuss and develop the ideas Texts they have and the emotions they feel when they listen to a wide range of conversations, stories, broadcasts, drama and other items of speech. Connect spoken texts, It is very important to remember that one student’s including songs, personal response to a text may be totally different than another child or that which the teacher speeches, poetry, drama expected. All students should be given the and stories, to personal opportunity to explore their own ideas in an atmosphere where all contributions are seen as choices, experiences, equally valid and valued. emotions, ideas and moral values. Assessment Students’ responses to spoken texts can be observed during discussions and further assessed through drawing or other written work. Internet Resources http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/ela/listenin g01.html For a brief explanation of KWL charts, see http://www.readingquest.org/strat/kwl.html 41 Sample Lesson Objectives 5.3 After listening to the first part of the poem, “The Adventures of Isabel,” students will discuss how they think it ends. L 5.4 In small groups students will retell story of “The Adventures of Isabel”. 5.6 After listening to the poem, “The Adventures of Isabel,” students will discuss the emotions they felt. Lear ning Outcomes Infa nt 1 Sample Teaching Strategies 5.1 Recognize emotions, for In order to develop students’ ability to respond critically, example, happy, sad, or angry, emotionally and imaginatively to a text, it is necessary to of characters in stories spend considerable time with it, possibly over the course of presented orally several lessons. Infa nt 2 Before listening: Provide background information about the 5.2 Answer simple questions about text’s topic, author, purpose and other features and discuss it their feelings in response to with the students. During listening: Provide students with opportunities to deepen stories and poetry presented their knowledge and understanding of the text by using orally guiding questions. Read the text several times. 5.3 Predict outcomes of familiar After listening: Allow the students to discuss and share ideas repetitive stories presented as a whole class, in small groups or with a partner. Encourage orally them to communicate their ideas in a variety of ways, for 5.4 Retell/dramatize parts of stories example, using role play, pictures or puppets and in writing. heard K-W-L Charts (What I know, What I want to know, What I learnt) can help structure listening activities. Standard 1 5.5 Discuss the emotions they feel when listening to stories, poems and non fiction texts presented orally. Sample Student Activities DLTA: Directed Listening Thinking Activities – Say, or read, a text to the class, stop at a point, ask the student to make predictions or discuss what they have heard, continue with the text and discuss whether the students’ ideas were confirmed. Partner Retell: In pairs, one child reads a story, the other retells it, elaborating and developing it as they please. LAPS: Listen, Ask, Picture and Summarize (listen carefully, ask questions, picture what you heard, visualized and felt, and summarize your ideas to a partner). Linkages Listen – Think – Pair – Share: Students listen to a spoken CS2(L) Listen for information text. They are given time to think about it before they discuss CS3(L) Interpret and evaluate oral it in pairs. Finally they share their ideas with the whole class. presentations Progressive stories: A student starts a story with a single sentence. In turn, each student adds to the story. CS6(V) Comprehend and interpret visual images. CS7(V) Respond to visual images CS28(R) Interpret stories CS29(R) Respond personally to stories CS30(R) Read and relate to poetry 43 Viewing CS6 Comprehend and Interpret Visual Images CS7 Respond to Visual Images 44 6 Comprehend and Interpret Visual Images General Comments Young children tend to “think in pictures” whereas adults tend to think linguistically. This means that the presentation of information to children visually is likely to be more effective than presenting it in words only. Content Standard 6 Visual images used for lower division students Comprehend and should: Interpret Visual - be clear and accurate - be easy to read Images - be logically coherent - be colourful - have a consistent scale and be correctly Extract the apparent and proportioned. covert meaning from In primary school, students need to develop visual visual images and literacy skills that improve their understanding of discuss their purpose, accompanying written texts. They need to be able to use a pictures to understand stories and non- usefulness and reliability. fiction texts in various subject areas. As students progress, they need to learn how to interpret pictorial representations, environmental signs, logos, mottos, art, photography and gestures in increasingly sophisticated ways. They also need to be able to choose how and when to use pictures and which pictures to use to meet their needs. Assessment Possible assessment activities include: -sequencing images -following directions to complete a Internet Resources physical activity A good site on teaching visual literacy is -creating a story using pictures http://k-8visual.info -matching pictures to appropriate text Other Resources Some picture books narrate stories using no, or very few words, for example, “A Day at Camp,” by George Ella Lyon. 45 Sample Lesson Objectives 6.1 Students will match pictures of people to the names of different V ethnic groups. 6.7 Students will study a comic strip and then retell the story with the events in the correct sequence. Learning Outcomes Sample Teaching Strategies Infant I Read Aloud: In many children’s books, the 6.1 Understand that visual images images contain more information than the written contain information. text. During a class read-aloud, teachers should elicit these extra details from students. 6.2 Identify and differentiate Choices: From a number of different pictures, shapes, sizes, letters, numbers, students choose which one best illustrates a and patterns (etc.). story. 6.3 Connect a visual image to a Lists: Students list the items they can see in a story text. picture. Visual Presentation: Content information from all subjects should be presented using visual images Infant 2 as often as possible. 6.4 Follow instructions given by the Common symbols: Before they can read letters, means of gestures, symbols Infant 1 students should be able to interpret and pictures. common signs and symbols, such as traffic signs, 6.5 Select or draw a series of business logos, weather symbols, and so on. pictures to retell a story. Standard 1 6.6 Determine the sequence and Sample Student Activities main idea of a story told Picture recall: After studying a picture, students turn it over entirely in pictures. so they can’t see the picture and try to remember what was 6.7 Tell a story or sequence of in it. events based on a series of Spot the difference: Students explain the difference between pictures. two similar pictures. Picture sequence: Given a series of pictures about a well known story, students put them in order. This can be a group activity. Story illustration: Students draw pictures of a scene in a well known story. They can use the author’s own illustrations for ideas. Signs treasure hunt: Students hunt for an object hidden in Linkages the classroom using wordless clues made of pictures and CS2(L) Listen for information symbols. CS3(L) Interpret speech and evaluate Grouping: Students group letters, pictures and shapes speakers according to common characteristics. Mime: One student mimes an action, (without talking), for CS7(V) Comprehend and interpret visual the other students to guess. images Matching: Students match a word or line of text to an CS10(S) Narrate real and fictional events appropriate picture. CS28(R) Interpret stories Scrap books: Students paste pictures into a scrap book on a CS29(R) Relate personally to stories certain theme, e.g. my family or favourite foods. CS31(R) Comprehend non-fiction texts CS34(W) Write stories 46 7 Respond to Visual Images General Comments Content Standard 7 Children begin to interpret and respond to visual Respond to Visual images in the earliest months of their lives. Even before they enter primary school, they encounter Images thousands of pictures, drawings and television images. The aim of this content standard is to help students recognize, think about and discuss their emotional Connect visual images to reactions and intellectual responses to these images. personal choices, experiences, emotions, ideas and moral values. Assessment Discussion: Teachers should monitor students’ oral responses to visual images. Internet Resources Information on visual-spatial learning is available at http://www.gifteddevelopment.com/Visual_Spatial_Learner/v sl.htm Scholastic, the children’s book publisher has teaching resources on its web-site www.scholastic.com 47 V Sample Lesson Objective 7.1 Students will observe various pictures and tell their partners how the images make them feel. Learning Outcomes 7.3 Students will observe various pictures and discuss with their partners how they think the people depicted feel. Infant 1 7.1 State whether they like or dislike a picture or whether it Sample Teaching Strategies makes them feel happy or sad. Read Alouds: Students can achieve these Infant 2 learning outcomes by studying and discussing 7.2 Express a point of view based pictures accompanying stories being read aloud. on viewing a picture. Exposure: Provide a variety of visual images such as pictures, videos, art, cartoons, graphs, diagrams, paintings and so on. Standard 1 Media awareness: Discussion of the images seen 7.3 Identify and discuss the in newspapers, in the street, and on television emotions of story characters or should begin in Infant 1 and continue throughout real people depicted pictorially. primary school. Video: This content standard refers to video/tv images as well as to still photographs and drawings. Language Experience Approach: Students’ responses to visual images can be dictated to the teacher and used for as the class’s reading texts. Sample Student Activities Discussion: Since this content standard relates to personal reactions, small group and whole class Linkages discussions will help students explore their own CS3(L) Interpret speech and evaluate ideas and those of their peers. speakers Dictation: Students can study a picture and CS6(V) Comprehend and interpret visual dictate a sentence for the teacher to write images underneath it. Mime role-play: Students retell a short story CS27(R) Comprehend fiction texts using actions and gestures to communicate CS28(R) Interpret stories emotions. CS29(R) Relate personally to stories CS31(R) Comprehend non-fiction texts 49 Speaking CS8 Ask and Answer Questions CS9 Express Opinions and Communicate Ideas CS10 Narrate Real and Fictional Events CS11 Deliver Reports and Speeches CS12 Display Self-Esteem while Speaking CS13 Perform Drama CS14 Recite Poetry CS15 Participate in Group Discussions CS16 Pronounce Words Appropriately CS17 Use Correct Grammatical Structures in Speech CS18 Use Appropriate Styles and Registers in Speech CS19 Use Speech Prosody and Gesture 50 8 Ask and Answer Questions Ge neral Comments Th ere are several content standards that relate to the de velopment of interpersonal communication skills and, du ring planning, teachers should be aware of the lea rning outcomes for them all. These content sta ndards include CS4, CS8, CS9, CS12 and CS15. Content Standard 8 Lo wer division students can use languages other Ask and Answer than English in achieving the learning outcomes related to this content standard. Students are more Questions likely to engage in discussion and conversation in their first language. However, throughout lower div ision they should also be developing their ability Ask and answer to converse in English. questions for a variety of Mo st classroom learning occurs through teacher- purposes, for example, stu dent and student-student dialogue and students to elicit and clarify ne ed to learn how to use language collectively as a to ol for thinking and learning. They need to learn to information and to fin d out information, develop social skills, share negotiate. ide as and experiences and solve problems through co nstructive talk. Lo wer division students need some explicit ins truction in how to work together. They need to be ta ught how to listen to each other and the type of qu estions that can be asked to obtain information. Ho wever, most of the time, teaching for this content standard will not be planned for; instead it will occur as the opportunity arises during the course of teaching other subjects and topics. Assessment Assessment through informal Internet Resources monitoring may be sufficient for this content standard.. http://www.teachingideas.co.uk/english contains lesson ideas from a UK primary school. One of the best writers on how children use language to communicate is Neil Mercer of Cambridge University. See for example, http://people.ucsc.edu/~gwells/Files/Courses_Folder/ED %20200D%20Papers/Chap%2011%20Mercer.pdf 51 Sample Lesson Objectives 8.1 During a guessing game, students will ask each other questions to obtain specific information. 8.3 During morning circle, students will answer questions S posed by the teacher about their recent activities. 8.6 During a role play of a market shopping scenario, students will use appropriate greetings. Learning Outcomes Sample Teaching Strategies Morning Circle: Provide opportunities for students to talk about interests such as hobbies, television programs, Infant 1 weather and personal news. It is a good idea to begin 8.1 Ask a teacher or familiar adult each day with this activity. questions to obtain information Questioning Technique: “Open ended” questions designed or permission. to stimulate thoughtful responses, inferring and deductions are usually preferable to questions that restrict 8.2 Follow an agreed procedure for the possible answers. asking and answering questions Reword and Recap: During conversations between the teacher and the student, the teacher should reword and in class, for example by raising recap what has been said to clarify and assess the a hand and waiting for the student’s understanding. The teacher should also ask teacher. questions that encourage the student to elaborate on what they have said. 8.3 Answer questions, possibly using Make Connections: Teachers should consciously try to sentence fragments and connect the subject of a conversation with a student to gestures. that student’s previous knowledge and experience. They should also consciously make connections between the topic and curricular matter. Infant 2 Talking Rules: Each teacher should establish and practice 8.4 Ask a partner simple questions to procedures for asking and answering questions and model acquire information using who, these procedures. what, when, where, and how. Buzz Groups: Instead of asking individual students in a whole class setting, ask small groups to consider questions jointly before answering. 8.5 Ask a partner questions about a topic of interest. 8.6 Give appropriate spoken responses to greetings, instructions and requests. Sample Student Activities Talk About Your Partner: Students work in pairs. Standard 1 They have to find out something about their partner 8.7 Maintain a conversation with a and then report it to the whole class. series of short exchanges. Oral-Structured-Situations: Create role-play situations such as asking permission, shopping, buying, borrowing, or meeting a new friend. Puppet Shows: Students can create their own Linkages puppets and then use them to have pretend CS4(L) Listen and communicate conversations. CS5(L) Respond to spoken texts Book Club: In small groups, students can tell each other about books they have read or stories they CS9(S) Express opinions and communicate have heard recently. ideas. Guessing Games: Think of an animal; students have CS12(S) Display self-esteem while speaking to ask questions in order to guess what it is. CS15(S) Participate in group discussions 52 9 Express Opinions and Communicate Ideas General Comments As with CS8 and CS10, some students may need to use a language other than English to meet these learning Content Standard 9 outcomes. However, with all students, the transition to using English should begin in Infant I and by Standard 1 Express Opinions and most students should be using English most of the time. Communicate ideas The focus of this content standard is talking about and explaining ideas. Thus, asking students not just what they think, but why they think it is important. Effectively and clearly state, develop, explain As with CS8, students are more likely to express themselves well if they are talking about a topic of and justify opinions and interest to them while linking their ideas to their own ideas experience. Teachers should also link ideas expressed orally to writing tasks. There is no limit to the topics that can be discussed in a language arts classroom and teachers should not feel restricted by curriculum themes. Thus, books, T.V. characters, recent events, videos, and trips are all legitimate topics for discussion. However, whatever the topic, teachers should seek to develop students’ oral language by encouraging them to use a range of vocabulary and grammatical structures. Assessment Essential skills to assess: Ability to: -describe objects in complete sentences -express likes & dislikes about a given topic -display creativity in the use of the imagination. Internet Resources -state opinions on a topic from outside of school www.teachingenglish.org.uk is a British Council sponsored web-site that contains many teaching ideas and recent articles. Its focus is on teaching English as a second language using a communicative approach. 53 Sample Lesson Objectives S 9.1 After listening to a story, students will state if they what they like and dislike about it. 9.2 While discussing the topic “animals”, students will state which animals they would like to have as pets and explain why. Learning Outcomes 9.3 Using play dough, students will create an object and explain its design and function to the class. In fant 1 9. 1 State likes, dislikes and preferences. Sample Teaching Strategies In fant 2 Speaking Rules: Establish rules about listening to 9.2 Use complete sentences of five each other and taking turns in conversations and or more words to express ideas, discussions. preferences and needs. “Talking Words” Word Wall: Display in the classroom words and phrases that students can use when St andard 1 expressing ideas. For example, “because” and “I 9. 3 Express and explore ideas think” . based on the imagination. Dilemmas: Provide scenarios in which students have choose between two options and give reasons for their choice. 9. 4 Give simple reasons for their Caring Circle: Encourage students to discuss their ideas based on direct personal feeling. observations or concrete experience. See also teaching strategies for CS8 Sample Student Activities Speaking Game: Give each group a picture. After a group discussion, one students can talk about it. Character Acting: Students to choose a job/career and give reasons for their choice. This can be substituted with games, sports, animals or any other topic. Using the imagination: Students draw an Linkages imaginary object, or make up an imaginary event CS4(L) Listen and communicate and talk about it in a small group. CS7(V) Interpret visual images Response to reading: Students give opinions on a story they have read, (see CS29). CS12(S) Display self esteem while speaking CS15(S) Participate in group discussions CS28(R) Interpret stories CS37(W) Write non-fiction 54 10 Narrate Real and Fictional Events Gen eral Comments Tell ing “stories” about recent events has traditionally bee n a major part of Belizean culture. Such narratives help people share knowledge, values, habits and aspects Content Standard 10 of c ultural identity. Through story-telling, students can lear n about other ethnic and cultural groups from Belize Narrate Real and and around the world. Fictional Events Nar rating a story or event involves performance and enc ouraging story telling can help build students’ Effectively and clearly con fidence and self-esteem. describe events and Not e that, although the learning outcomes for lower stories they have divi sion focus on describing real events, student narration witnessed, heard, or of imaginary events should also be encouraged. invented Assessment Essential skills to assess include the ability to describe events, objects and animals, in any language and in standard English. Teachers can use a simple rubric or checklist to note the following: - Structure of the narrative (does it make sense) - Creativity -Use of appropriate vocabulary - Use of appropriate sentence structure. Internet Resources A detailed article on story telling and education can be found at http://ijea.asu.edu/v2n1/ (Mello in the International Journal of Education & the Arts, Vol 2, 2001) lessonplanspage.com is a useful source of teaching ideas on any subject. 55 Sample Lesson Objectives 10.1 After observing a recent event, students will describe it to the class. S 10.3 Working in pairs, students will describe pictures to one another using complete sentences. 10.5 In groups, students will share personal news, using several consecutive sentences to describe events. Le arning Outcomes Sample Teaching Strategies Model Speaking: Calmly, using audible voice, In fant 1 model speaking standard English in complete 10.1 Describe a recent event during sentences. class ‘circle time’ or to the Word Bank: Develop a word bank of descriptive teacher or familiar adult. words and reward the students for using them spontaneously. Also develop specific story 10 .2 Briefly describe objects, animals telling vocabulary. and places. News Broadcast: Have children watch a television news broadcast and ask them to role- Infant 2 play being a news presenter. 10.3 Describe a picture using Dramatization: Students dramatize situations complete sentences. described by the teacher, for example, shopping, meeting an angry dog, etc 10 .4 Calmly describe a recently Grammar: Explicitly explain and model the witnessed event. difference between phrases and sentences. Standard 1 10.5 Using several sentences consecutively, describe an incident or tell a story based on Sample Student Activities recent or past own experience, Morning Circle: Each morning, students in an audible voice. share their “news” of family events or tell the class about events they have witnessed. Word Collection: Students make personal collections of interesting words they encounter in stories and then try to use them in their own conversations. Word of the Day: Each student selects a word from a dictionary that they will try to use at least once during the day. Role Play: Students pretend to be news reporters and describe events orally. Linkages Picture Description: Students describe CS2(L) Listen for information pictures of events, objects, animals and CS6(V) Comprehend and interpret visual images places etc. Talk Time Surprise Bag: Students pull CS7(V) Respond to visual images objects, or questions written on cards, CS16(S) Pronounce words appropriately from a surprise bag. This can be done CS17(S) Use correct grammatical structure in speech around a theme selected in advance by the CS18(S) Use appropriate styles and registers in students. Picture Game: One student has a picture of speech an object that the other members of the CS19(S) Use speech prosody and gesture group cannot see. The student describes CS31(R) Relate personally to stories the object, but without naming it. The CS34(W) Write stories other students have to guess what it is. 56 11 Deliver Reports and Speeches General Comments Some infant students may be reluctant to speak in front of the whole class. The teacher should create a safe environment that encourages them to do this. Content Standard 11 Students should be encouraged to read Deliver Reports and aloud in front of the class, to give impromptu short speeches and to recite Speeches poems. The audience does not need to be limited to the classroom but can include the Prepare and confidently wider school and local community. Participation in occasions like the Festival of and effectively deliver Arts should also be encouraged. formal reports and speeches for a variety of There are strong connections between this content standard, CS13 Perform Drama, purposes on a variety of CS14 Recite Poetry, CS19 Use Speech topics. Prosody and Gesture and CS25 Read Aloud. Assessment All students should be able to say something in front of the whole class. Observation: Monitor students’ ability to maintain good eye contact, and use appropriate volume and posture. However, lower division students can only be expected to be beginning to develop these skills. Internet Resources http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/mla/speak0 11.html 57 Sample Lesson Objectives 11.1 During “Circle Time” each student will contribute sentences S about a personal photograph. 11.3 After creating a weather wheel, students will use it to give a report on weather conditions to the class. Learning Outcomes Infant 1 11.1 Take part in ‘Circle Time’ activities in which each student contributes Sample Teaching Strategies an item. Modeling: The Teacher should model the skillful delivery of reports, using a clear voice with Infant 2 good volume while maintaining eye-contact 11.2 Give simple reports about current and using a good posture. weather conditions. Guidelines: The teacher and students may together prepare a list of guidelines to use during oral reports. For example, speak with a Standard 1 clear voice, speak loudly, look at the people 11.3 Give a short report on a favourite you are speaking to, breath deeply before topic to the rest of the class. starting to speak and stand straight. Pre-speaking activities: Giving a report is more likely to be effective if significant preparation is done Sample Student Activities Circle Time: Students should have the opportunity to share news every day. Show and Tell: Students bring a favourite object/photograph from home and talk about it. This can be a small group or whole class activity. Linkages Families: Each student brings a photograph of their family. They have to tell other students who CS3(L) Interpret and evaluate oral is in the photograph. Photographs can be presentations mounted for a display. Weather Wheel/Chart/Role Play: Each day a CS9(S) Express opinions and communicate student can have a turn to give the weather ideas report. CS13(S) Perform drama Puppets/Cinema Box: The use of puppets, toys CS14(S) Recite poetry and other objects can make giving reports fun and help students overcome their timidity. CS17(S) Use correct grammatical structures in speech CS19(S) Use speech prosody and gesture CS25(R) Read aloud CS34(W) Research from non fiction texts 58 12 Display Self-Esteem while Speaking Ge neral Comments Thr oughout lower division, students need to develop the ability to initiate and maintain conversations, Content Standard 12 con duct small group discussions and communicate and support ideas and opinions while listening to and Display Self–Esteem eva luating those of others. These dispositions are while Speaking cov ered in a series of content standards, for example, CS4 , CS8 and CS9, that relate to the development of the students’ interpersonal intelligence. Confidently engage in Sel f esteem refers to how a person views himself or spoken discourse and her self and how they think they are viewed by others. Chi ldren like to feel accepted, and if they do not, their show willingness to share low self esteem may hinder their progress at school and discuss ideas and by reducing their participation in learning activities. Abo ve all, students need to feel that the classroom is opinions with familiar and a s afe environment in which they are treated well and unfamiliar people. fair ly by the teacher. Som e lower division students may appear too timid to eng age in conversations or to offer their opinions in clas s. To help these students, make the classroom env ironment feel as safe as possible and create lots of stru cture for speaking exercises. Prevent students from commenting negatively on what their peers say. Sho w that you value every positive comment by tha nking the student or praising what they have said. Pre venting students from using their first language, esp ecially as they begin school, is likely to damage infa nts’ self esteem. The use of corporal punishment, which should never be inflicted by a class teacher, is also likely to damage a student’s self esteem. Internet Resources Teachers can find much useful Assessment information on web-sites aimed at Observation: parents, for example this article on self- Focus on whether students can speak confidently esteem: in a natural manner. http://www.notmykid.org/parentArticles/ SelfEsteem/ 59 Sample Lesson Objectives S 12.1 In pairs, students will role-play a conversation without showing shyness or embarrassment. Le arning Outcomes Sample Teaching Strategies Infant 1 Modeling: Explicit conversation techniques can be 12. 1 Speak in a natural, easy taught, with the teacher acting as a model. manner with children and adults Practice: Students can practice techniques, such with whom they are familiar. as facing the person they are speaking to, maintaining eye contact, and asking questions and waiting for the answer without interrupting. Infant 2 Messages: Students can be asked to take 12.2 Demonstrate feelings of self- messages to other teachers to give them the worth and express ideas experience of talking to other adults. confidently. Class Routines: Students can be trained how to greet and talk to visitors to the classroom, 12. 3 Express humour and other Group Play: Group games should be a regular appropriate feelings. feature of lower division teaching as students learn how to win, lose and compete gracefully. Game playing can occur both as a part of regular Sta ndard 1 lessons and during break and lunch times. All 12. 4 Demonstrate an ability to classrooms should have games in their learning express ideas to people with centres. whom they are not very familiar, for example visitors to school. Sample Student Activities 12.5 Talk freely and easily about Questionnaires: Students can conduct simple personal or group experiences questionnaires (with yes/no tick boxes and a and demonstrate a willingness limited number of questions) with teachers and and eagerness to speak. other adults in the school. Favourite Rhymes: Students can be given opportunities to tell nursery rhymes, jokes and riddles or present songs and jingles in class. Situational Role-Play: Students can role-play conversations for given situations, for example, Linkages meeting people for the first time. The teacher can provide model phrases for them to use, for CS4(L) Listen and communicate example, “Good morning,” “What is your name,” CS8(S) Ask and answer questions “Where do you go to school?” This may be particularly useful for students whose first CS9(S) Express opinions and language is not English. communicate ideas. CS11(S) Deliver reports and speeches CS13(S) Perform drama CS14(S) Recite poetry CS15(S) Participate in group discussions CS25(R) Read aloud 60 1 3 Perform Drama G eneral Comments R ole play in the classroom brings variety and fun. F or it to succeed, the teacher must plan properly Content Standard 13 a nd believe in the positive impact the activities c an have. High expectations need to be Perform Drama c ommunicated to the students and a well- s tructured scenario needs to be created. Develop and role play I n addition to being fun and motivating, role play improvised skits and c an give all students the chance to express dramatically perform t hemselves in a positive way. Role play and d rama can bring the outside world into the items from a prepared c lassroom and can offer students the opportunity script t o use language in new and creative ways. D ramatic activities at the lower division level n eed careful preparation and structuring. Role p lays should be on topics or stories with which t he students are already familiar. A ssessment O bservation: Dramatic activities, including role p lays provide the teacher with an opportunity to a ssess most of the learning outcomes relating to speaking, (CS8-19). Rubrics: Simple rubrics that give points for creativity, confidence, use of voice and use of Internet Resources language can make assessment more objective. The rubrics can be shared with the students. http://www.bced.gov.bc./irp/drama810/apg.ht m http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/spea k/role_play.shtml 61 Sample Lesson Objectives 13.2 In small groups, students will role play a scenario given by the teacher about an accident in the play S ground. 13.3 After discussing recent events, in groups students will choose one event and present a dramatization of it. Learn ing Outcomes Infant 1 Sample Teaching Strategies 13.1 Individually act out the Preparation: meaning of a single word, for Discuss the topic to be dramatized. example, an action verb. Model good speaking and acting techniques. Provide useful vocabulary or short phrases. Rehearsal Infan t 2 Give rehearsal time and give students advice as you watch 13.2 Role play simple situations with them rehearse. at least one other person, for Participate, if necessary. example ‘at school,’ ‘at the Make suggestions to prompt the students’ imagination and store’, etc. creativity. During Performance Stand ard. 1 Create a safe area for the performance. 13.3 In a small group, develop and Set rules for the performers and for the audience. perform a simple role play Encourage students to face the audience and speak loudly based on recent events or news and clearly. item. Give directions, encouragement and rewards. Sample Student Activities Miming Games: One student mimes a word or phrase, without speaking; the other students guess what it is. Simon Says: Simon says and other games that require the students to make physical responses help build confidence. Impromptu Short Performances: Students can be given opportunities to tell jokes, riddles and stories in Linkages front of the class. CS5(L) Connect spoken texts, including songs, Role Play Scenarios: Role plays should be used speeches, poetry, drama and stories, to frequently in language teaching. Situations can be personal choices, experiences, related to themes important for the students’ emotions, ideas and moral values. development, for example, health and safety, CS10(S) Narrate real and fictional Events pollution and bullying. They can be related to fairy tales, rhymes, stories and recent events, as well as CS11(S) Deliver reports and speeches topics drawn from other areas of the curriculum. CS12(S) Display self-esteem while speaking Talking About a Partner: Students work in pairs before CS14(S) Recite poetry presenting information about each other. CS25(R) Read aloud Character Impersonation: Students take on the role of a story character. CS199S) Use Speech prosody and gesture Pretending Games: Students pretend to be a CS31(R) Comprehend fiction texts someone, for example a doctor, fire fighter, police CS34(W) Write stories officer, etc. 62 14 Recite Poetry General Comments When planning poetry lessons, teachers should combine learning outcomes from CS14, Recite Poetry, CS30, Read and Relate to Poetry, and CS35, Write Poetry. Content Standard 14 The classroom needs to have a collection of Recite Poetry poems of different kinds and on different themes. These must be age appropriate. From Infant 1, students can be helped to use a Recite poetry with good delivery technique. When reciting poems the speaker should stand in front of an audience confidence and with with the “speaker’s stance”. This entails balance, appropriate pace, with the speaker’s feet approximately shoulder width apart. The reciter should avoid swaying or volume, intonation and shifting weight from foot to foot. The stance may stress. change if it is for emphasis. The speaker should have an erect posture, and, if not holding a book or paper, the hands can rest down at the speaker’s sides in a relaxed manner. If gestures (appropriate to material presented) are used, then afterwards the hands should return to the sides. Assessment When assessing, monitor: - the ability to link simple actions to words - the ability to enunciate words clearly, - the ability to memorize short chunks of verse. Internet Resources www.poetryclass.net is an excellent, practical site. For lower division look for lessons at the KS1 level. http://www.favoritepoem.org, a collaboration between Boston University and the Poetry Society of America has good resources for teachers. To find poems, try www.poemhunter.com Also try www.poetryteachers.com 63 Sample Lesson Objectives 14.1 During poetry circle, a student will present a favorite nursery rhyme using actions. 14.3 In groups, students will change the words of a well-known S nursery rhyme to create an original one. 14.6 After having time to rehearse, students will recite the action poem “in the heart of a seed”, demonstrating appropriate posture and delivery technique. Lear ning Outcomes Sample Teaching Strategies Infant 1 Poetry Circle: (or My Favourite Poem): Teachers can 14.1 Accompany rhymes and songs schedule the same time each week for poetry activities. with simple actions. Every week a student can share a poem, song or nursery rhyme with the class. Modeling: The teacher should read poems aloud to the 14.2 Chorally, with the aid of the class regularly, modeling good delivery techniques such teacher, recite simple poems as posture, breath control, and use of intonation and with actions. stress. The poems read should be ones the students will like and understand. Rhymes with actions and repetitive patterns are usually appropriate for lower division Infa nt 2 students. 14.3 Play with rhyme by changing Pictures: Use pictures to help students understand and familiar poems and nursery remember rhymes. rhymes. Poetry Readings: Organize a poetry reading for students to recite poems to their parents. Invite parents to read 14.4 In a group, memorize a short poems for the students. Use other opportunities for the poem for public performance, students to recite poems to a wider audience, for for example, to a group of example, a school assembly, at an open day or at the parents or at the Festival of Festival of Arts Arts. Stan dard 1 14.5 When reciting assume Sample Student Activities appropriate posture to aid voice Complete the Line: The teacher supplies the a line of poetry, allowing the students to supply the last word of and breath control. each line. Students can also come up with new lines for favourite poems, such as “The Wheels on the Bus” and 14.6 Individually, recite simple poems “Old MacDonald” with actions either from Friday Fish Bowl: When a student has memorized a memory or from a text. poem, they put the title on a piece of paper in the “fish bowl”. On Fridays- a fish is selected and the child recites the poem. Syllable Clapping: As the teacher reads a poem aloud, Linkages the students clap each syllable. CS1(L) Identify and distinguish Poem Line: The students form a line, each person has between sounds one part of a poem to memorize and recite. After they CS5(L) Respond to Spoken Texts have mastered this, change the order of the line-up. Rhyming Games: In small groups, student make a list CS11(S) Deliver reports and speeches of words that rhyme with one supplied by the teacher. CS13(S) Perform drama Fill-in-the-blanks poem: Give the students a poem with CS19(S) Use Speech prosody and blank spaces that they to fill with their own rhyming gestures words, for example, “My ____ is like a ____ / because __ is very _____.” etc. CS25(R) Read aloud CS30(R) Read and Relate to Poetry CS35(W) Write Poetry 64 15 Participate in Group Discussions Ge neral Comments Th e ability to work in groups effectively has a strong im pact on a student’s experience as a learner and is co rrelated with their chances of success. Developing Content Standard 15 good group work skills in lower division students is, the refore, very important. Participate in Group Discussions Stu dents should experience working in groups from Inf ant 1; however, they are more likely to work on ind ividual tasks alongside each other than to cooperate Participate confidently, on a group task. For group tasks to be successful at the lower division level, the teacher needs to provide tolerantly and politely in ve ry clear instructions about what each student will do. class and small group Dis cussions may develop social interaction skills as discussions by sharing stu dents express ideas, take turns and listen critically ideas, taking turns, to build on each other’s ideas. During discussion they sh ould each respect opinions and recognize that listening and responding pe rceptions vary. Three or four members in a to the contribution of dis cussion group is appropriate because it will give all me mbers the opportunity to listen and speak. others Gr oups can be teacher or student selected. Group me mbership should be changed regularly to ensure tha t students work with all their classmates.. Pe rmanently arranging classroom furniture so that stu dents sit in groups rather than in rows will make gro upwork easier to manage. Internet Resources Assessment http://wwwsasked.gov.sk.ca.docs/mla/speak0 Assessment for this content standard will depend 26.html heavily on observation. Teachers should monitor Other Resources whether individual students freely contribute and Strategies and Models for Teachers: Teaching share in group situations and whether they follow expected procedures. Content and Thinking Skills P.D. Eggen -D.P. Kauchah pg. 118 65 Sample Lesson Objectives 15.1 In a teacher led discussion, students will contribute at least one idea, while S following simple discussion rules. Sample Teaching Strategies Lea rning Outcomes Discussion Rules: Present and establish rules for discussions. Infant 1 Use Background Knowledge: Use familiar topics and 15.1 In a teacher led discussion wait themes and encourage students to contribute ideas for someone else to finish Offer Guidance: Before discussion, establish a talking and not interrupt them. purpose and present a list of possible questions to be asked Inf ant 2 Moderate Discussions: Ensure that all students have 15. 2 In small group or class an opportunity to speak. Remind students to wait discussion wait for someone until someone has finished talking and to not else to finish talking and not interrupt. Allow discussions to flow and ensure that interrupt them. most contributions come from the students, not the teacher. Speaker Markers: Some teachers like to use an Sta ndard 1 object, like a stuffed animal toy. Only the person 15. 3 Work alongside other students holding the toy is allowed to speak. This can apply to in a group sharing equipment. both whole class and small group discussions. Story Discussion: Link group discussions to a story the students have recently read or heard. Group Tasks: Ensure that the instructions for a task are explicit and well explained. With lower division students it is usually necessary to explain the task several times. Set Roles: Ensure that every member of a group has a role and understands what they have to do. Equipment Rules: Establish rules and procedures for borrowing, sharing and using equipment. Sample Student Activities Think, Pair, Share: The teacher asks a question. Everyone then gets a few minutes to think of an Linkages answer silently. Finally, various students share what Groupwork can occur in the teaching of any they have been thinking. A more complex version of content standard. this has students working in pairs. Group Tasks: Give a group a picture to colour in. CS4(L) Listen and communicate Each student needs to colour a different section of the picture. However they have to share a single set CS8(S) Ask and answer questions of crayons. CS9(S) Express opinions and communicate Discussion Wheel: Students spin a wheel with their ideas. names on it to determine who will speak next. CS12(S) Display self-esteem while speaking. 66 16 Pronounce Words Appropriately Gener al Comments Pronou ncing words appropriately is necessary for Content Standard 16 effectiv e communication. Incorrect pronunciation strains communication and may even change a Pronounce Words phrase ’s meaning. Young learners need to practice Appropriately pronun ciation which can be done using rhymes in songs a nd poems and repetition of similar sounds. As far a s possible the teaching of this content Pronounce Words Clearly standa rd should be integrated into the teaching of and Appropriately CS8-CS 15. It is ve ry important that teachers distinguish betwee n the wrong pronunciation of words, and pronun ciation variations caused by dialect and accent. There is no such thing as standard pronun ciation. Artificially trying to force students to use a foreign (including British or American) pronun ciation could be very harmful to their oral langua ge development. As sessment Th e essential skill to assess is the appropriate pro nunciation of individual phonemes. Students who mispronounce these sounds may need individual help. Internet Resources http://www.soundsofenglish.org has a useful tips for teachers page on pronunciation. 67 S Sample Lesson Objectives L e a r ning Outcomes 16.2 After learning a new song, students will compile a list of “new” words and practice I nfant 1 saying each one with a partner. 1 6.1 During speech, clearly and correctly pronounce the main 42 phonemes (language sounds) of Standard English. I nfant 2 T here are no learning outcomes for I nfant 2 in this content standard. H owever, teachers should monitor the Sample Teaching Strategies o ral language development of their s tudents and intervene to correct Rhymes: The frequent use of rhyming songs, errors. chants, drills, poems, nursery rhymes, and tongue- twisters helps students pronounce words appropriately. S tandard 1 Pronunciation Games: In pronunciation bingo, 1 6.2 Consistently pronounce students cross a picture off their card if they hear commonly encountered words a word with a similar sound. appropriately and clearly. Modeling: Good modeling of appropriate pronunciation, particularly of those sounds that Note: 16.1 refers to the correct cause students frequent difficulties (e.g. th) is e nunciation of sounds within words, essential. n ot the isolated pronunciation of s ounds as part of a phonics exercise. Sample Student Activities Tongue Twisters Game What Is It? Put a list of words on the blackboard. One child is sent outside while another selects one of the words. The child from outside comes in then asks-”Is it ----?) Linkages Spin a Sound: spin a wheel with desired sound symbols then select two words with that sound All Content Standards from CS8 to CS15 and use it in a sentence orally Rhyming Games: say as many words as you can CS1(L) Identify and distinguish between that rhyme with *. sounds I Spy Game “I spy with my little eye, something CS25(R) Read aloud beginning with b” (This can be done with letter sounds instead of letter names. 68 1 7 Use Correct Grammatical Structures in S peech Gen eral Comments The achievement of this content standard should be integ rated into the teaching of CS8-CS15. This content standard refers specifically to the use Content Standard 17 gram mar in speech, not writing. At this level, the Use Correct expl icit teaching of sentence structure is unlikely to be effective because the concepts are too abstract Grammatical for y oung children. However, it is essential that Structures in Speech stud ents practice and develop their ability to state idea s in sentences and ask questions throughout lowe r division Use sentence structure, Oral language development can be stimulated thro ugh role play because it provides many word order, agreement oppo rtunities for the teacher to assist students to patterns and other learn and use grammatical structures and new voca bulary in a fun way. For example, when grammatical features stud ents in a role play scenario find themselves “at a correctly loss for words” the teacher can “feed in” or prompt by s upplying additional information. The use of gam es, for example, information gap games, can also be used. Lear ning outcomes 17.2 and 17.4 refer specifically to st andard English. This marks the beginning of the proc ess of helping students be aware of and unde rstand the difference between standard English and Kriol, (see also CS18) Asse ssment Asses sment should focus on the use of complete sentences (a) in any language and (b) in standard English. Internet Resources A teacher can observe whether a student uses complete sentences (a) rarely (b) sometimes (c) often www.ncte.org is the web-site of the U.S. (d) most of the time. Finally, he/she may also National Council for the Teaching of English. observe whether the student uses compete sentences Follow the link for grammar under “Teaching spontaneously, or only when prompted. Resources”. 69 S Sample Lesson Objectives 17.1 In a whole class discussion about *, Learning Outcomes students will contribute at least one idea using a complete sentence. Infant 1 17.1 State ideas in complete simple * insert an element from a language arts themes or another subject area. sentences. This learning outcome refers to both statements and questions. Sample Teaching Strategies Infant 2 17.2 Form the plural of most nouns Modeling: The frequent modeling of complete correctly while speaking sentences, in speech and in writing, will help standard English students differentiate between sentences and non-sentences. 17.3 Modify a noun with an adjective The Information Gap: Information gap games involve two or more students asking each other in a spoken sentence. questions to find out the information the other students have. For example, Student A has Standard 1 information to complete Student B’s card. For the 17.4 Apply appropriate present, past completion of the information there must be and future tense forms of verbs communication between both. They therefore will when speaking standard need to share to complete the activity. English 17.5 Modify a noun with two or more adjectives in a spoken sentence. Sample Student Activities Any of the activities from CS8-15 can be used. Initially, some students may only be Family Drawing: Students draw their family and talk able to achieve outcome 17.1 in about the people they have drawn. Alternatively, a their first language. However, by photograph may be used as a prompt. Standard 1, all students should be Complete the Sentence: In pairs, one student begins a able to achieve it in standard sentence, the partner completes it in any way they like. English. Say a Sentence Using . . Surprise Bag: A student picks an object from a surprise bag and must say a complete sentence/use an adjective about it. Cross References Yesterday I . . .: Students must say a complete sentence beginning with a time phrase, for example, “Yesterday I All Content Standards from CS8 to CS15 . . .” or “Tomorrow I . . .” Adjective Games: The teacher says a word and the CS19(S) Use speech prosody and gesture students have to shout out an adjective to describe it. CS44(W) Apply correct grammatical forms Pictures: Students say sentences with adjectives in in writing response to pictures. CS45(W) Incorporate stylistic devices in original writing 70 18 Use Appropriate Styles and Registers in Speech G eneral Comments A register is a particular type of language used fo r a particular purpose or in a particular social Content Standard 18 s etting. For example, most people use language d ifferently at home, at work, or with friends. Use Appropriate Styles I nformal spoken language usually uses shorter and Registers in s entences or fragments, is less organized and Speech u ses more ‘vague’ or non specific language. C hildren need practice time and exposure to m any different spoken text types. The telephone Choose and switch is an important communication tool for personal, between appropriate s chool and business use. It can help students be a ware of the difference between formal and styles of speech, formal in formal language and to use and choose the and informal registers, a ppropriate forms in different situations. Standard English, Kriol A n important aspect of this content standard is and other Languages. h elping students be aware of and understand the d ifference between Kriol and standard English. T his process can begin in lower division, although it becomes more explicit in the higher grades. Assessment Observe whether students use appropriate forms for requests, using the telephone, etc, (a) spontaneously, (b) after prompting Internet Resources or (c) not at all. www.kriol.org.bz is the web-site of the National Kriol Council of Belize. Using local Kriol publications and telling stories in Kriol can help students understand the difference between Kriol and English. 71 S Sample Lesson Objectives 18.1 In a shopping role play, students will use appropriate forms for greeting and L earning Outcomes requests. 18.2 Students will pretend to talk on the Infant 1 telephone while demonstrating basic 1 8.1 Use appropriate forms for telephone expression / etiquette. making requests (for example by saying please and thank you) and expressing needs. Sample Teaching Strategies I nfant 2 Explicit Teaching: Present students with specific There are no learning outcomes for phrases to use in classroom situations and role- this content standard for Infant 2. plays. Display these phrases on charts. However, encouraging the use of Modeling: Demonstrate appropriate usage of the “polite” forms of speech should telephone. Use puppets to model structures for continue. making requests. Guided Preparation: Provide charts and other materials containing appropriate forms. Drill S tandard. 1 work with the whole class before asking students 1 8.2 Use the telephone intelligently to practice in groups or pairs. and courteously for a variety of Literature: Use stories, poems and songs that purposes using appropriate contain the language structures you are forms of language. targeting. Brainstorm: Elicit from students what they know about speaking “politely” and what they know about using the telephone. Rewards: Give rewards to students who use appropriate language forms, for example, when asking for permission to go to the bathroom. Sample Student Activities Role Play: use scenarios to practice using request forms, for example, shopping, asking for items, borrowing items, etc. Linkages Pair work: Students rehearse using appropriate forms in pairs. CS2(L) Listen for information Telephone role play: students sit in pairs, back to CS4(L) Listen and communicate back, to hold a telephone conversation. Each student can have a card explaining who they are CS8(S) Ask and answer questions pretending to be and why they are telephoning. CS17(S) Use correct grammatical Telephone Self Assessment Checklist: In groups structure in speech. of three, while two students hold a telephone CS44(W) Apply correct grammatical conversation, the third can monitor their use of forms in Writing appropriate language using a checklist. 72 19 Use Speech Prosody and Gesture G eneral Comments P rosody refers to speech elements such as intonation, p itch, speed of delivery, loudness, rhythm tone and t imbre. These elements, aid in communicating ideas c learly. Content Standard 19 I t is usually not necessary to have activities specifically Use Speech Prosody and d esigned to teach prosody and gesture. Instead, the t eaching of this area should be integrated into the Gesture a ctivities used for CS8-18. A t this level, teachers should not use theory or give While speaking, s tudents technical definitions when talking about p rosody and gesture. Instead, teachers should communicate meaning by f requently model and student should have many using gesture and by o pportunities to practice prosody and gesture. varying voice tone, pace, I ncreasingly, students should show awareness of these e lements. volume, intonation and stress patterns. F requently remind students that we need to adjust our v oice tone, pace, volume and intonation to vary e motion in messages. For example, if the emotion to be e xpressed is angry, passionate or excited then the v oice is usually loud. A soft voice can be used to i ncrease tension when telling a story. Changes in i ntonation and stress within a sentence can be used to a dd emphasis or to turn a statement into a question. I t is also important to remind students that they should a void mumbling, keeping the hands away from their m outh. They should always speak in such a way that t heir listeners can hear them. Internet Resources Assessment www.bteducation.org/resources has free printable and downloadable resources for primary The most important skill to assess at lower division is school teachers. the ability to speak with appropriate volume. Teachers should expect to observe development over a over a period of time. 73 S Sample Lesson Objectives Learning Outcomes 19.1 While talking about their family picture, Infant 1 students will speak loudly enough for the 19.1 Speak with voice volume whole class to hear. appropriate to the listener and situation. Sample Teaching Strategies Infant 2 No learning outcomes for Infant 2 Modeling: The teacher should model good relate to this content standard. prosody and gesture at all times, but especially during read alouds and poetry recitals. While Standard 1 telling stories, the teacher can use different voices for different characters and he/she should 19.2 Indicate by varying the tone and vary speech the voice to make the story more pitch of the voce, when a interesting. question is being asked. Note that for learning outcome 19.2, it is not necessary to encourage students to excessively raise the pitch to indicate a sentence. Sample Student Activities Drama/Role Play: Students will develop speech prosody and gesture as they perform. Story Telling: Retelling stories with repetitive words and structures such as “Goldilocks and the Three Bears”, “The Little Red Hen”, “Jack and the Bean Stalk”, and well known nursery rhymes, poems and songs, allows students to concentrate on speech prosody and gesture. This is more difficult if the students are telling an unfamiliar story. Imitating: Imitating favourite story and T.V. characters can help students use speech prosody and gesture. Linkages All content standards from CS8-CS15 CS1(L) Identify and distinguish between sounds. CS4(L) Listen and communicate. CS25(R) Read aloud. 75 Reading CS20 Apply Phonics Knowledge CS21 Recognize Words by Sight CS22 Use Context Clues CS23 Display Word Power CS24 Use a Dictionary CS25 Read Aloud CS26 Select Appropriate Reading Material CS27 Comprehend Fiction Texts CS28 Interpret Stories CS29 Relate Personally to Stories CS30 Read and Relate to Poetry CS31 Comprehend Non-Fiction Texts CS32 Research from Non-Fiction Texts CS33 Analyse the Language, Nature and Structure of Texts 76 CS 20 Apply Phonics Knowledge General Comments Reading and writing in English is based on an alphabet code in which 26 letters represent approximately 42 sounds. Content Standard 20 Apply Phonics The ability to apply phonics knowledge depends on a good understanding of the sound system of the English language. Thus, Knowledge this content standard is closely linked with CS1 Identify and Distinguish between Sounds. In Infant 1, the basic code is taught. This is best done using a programme of systematic synthetic phonics such as Fast Phonics. Use knowledge of the Similar programmes include All Star Phonics, Hooked on Phonics, relationship between and Jolly Phonics. letters and sounds to In Infant 1, one way of reading and writing the main 42 sounds of decode words in print. English is taught, (CS20.2). Students should begin to blend two and three letters together to form words before the end of first term and should be reading phonetically spelt sentences before the end of second term (CS20.4, CS20.7, CS20.8). They should also be introduced to some four letter words, (CS20.6). Note that any phonics programme must be accompanied by a wide range of activities that develop other language skills. Focusing exclusively on decoding skills, without simultaneously building vocabulary and comprehension strategies is harmful. Assessment Essential skills to assess: 1. Recognition of letter and linking it with a sound, for example when a flashcard is shown. 2. Recognition of a letter in a word. 3. Tracing of a letter (See CS40) 4. Blending two or more letters together. Internet Resources For a general introduction to phonics, see http://www.pbs.org/parents/readinglanguage/articles/phonics/main.html A downloadable booklet on teaching phonics can be accessed at: http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/primary/publications/literacy/686807/nls_phonics0303jsolity.pd f 77 I nfant One R Le arning Outcomes Sample Lesson Objective By the end of the lesson students will identify the In fant 1 letter k with its sound, will have identified words 20.1 Recognise and name all letters containing the letter k, and will have traced the of the alphabet in upper and letter in their workbook. lower case. 20 .2 Recognise the most common letter-sound relationship for all the letters of the alphabet and for the digraphs ng, ck, ch, sh, th, ai, ee, ie (pie), oa, ue, ou Sample Teaching Strategies (ouch), ar, er, or, oi, oo (moon Phonics teaching concentrates on the sounds that and look). letters usually represent. However, students can 20 .3 Identify the initial sound and also be taught the letter names. the corresponding letter of a spoken word, object or picture. Explicit Teaching: Phonics should be taught 20.4 Blend a vowel and a consonant explicitly for about twenty minutes every single together to read a two letter day. New letters/sounds should be introduced at word, for example, at, it, ma, the rate of approximately two per week in first pa, in, am. term. Daily Review: Every day, every letter/sound 20 .5 Blend letters by sound to read learnt to that point should be reviewed. regularly spelt Consonant- Linkages: Letter/sounds should be introduced in Vowel-Consonant and Vowel- an active way, along with games, rhymes, songs, Consonant-Consonant words. pictures, words and actions that will help the 20.6 Read words with initial students learn and remember. consonant clusters, br-, tr-, bl- , gl-, st-, sn-, and dr-. 20 .7 Sound out most phonetically spelt one and two syllable Sample Student Activities words that contain short vowel Hunt the letter: Students have to find the letter in sounds and long vowel sounds classroom display and books. spelt using ai, ee, ie, oa, oo, Odd one out: Students identify the word that does a_e, i_e. not begin (or end) with the target sound. 20.8 Read words ending with the I went to market and bought an object beginning consonant clusters, -nd, -lp, - with the target sound. st, -nk, -sp, and -nt. Phonemic Stories and Rhymes: Tell stories and recite rhymes in which the target letter/sound 20 .9 Understand the terms vowel appears often (Sam the snake slid slowly into the and consonant as they relate to soft shoe) letters and sounds. Matching Games: Matching letter cards and pictures. Matching pictures with the same initial/middle/ending letter. Alphabet Zoo: Each cage has a letter. Students have to put animals into their correct cage. Linkages Fishing for Words: Students have to “fish” for words CS1(L) Identify and distinguish on the word wall that begin with the target between sounds letter/sound. CS21(R) Recognise words by sight CS40(W) Write clearly and legibly CS41(W) Spell words appropriately 78 CS2C0S20 AAppply Ppholnyics Phonics Knowledge Gene ral Comments Read ing and writing in English is based on an alphabet code in which 26 letters represent approximately 42 sound s. In In fant 1, the basic code is taught. In Infant 2 and Content Standard 20 Standard 1, the focus is on variations to the basic code and o n increasing the speed and ease of blending. For Apply Phonics exam ple, whereas in Infant 1, students might learn that Knowledge the long “e” sound is spelt “ee”, Infant 2 students shoul d learn that it can also be spelt ea (bean); or that the lo ng “a” sound can be spelt “a_e” (cake), “ai” (bait) , “ay” (say) and “a” (baby). Another variation that Infan t 2 students are likely to encounter include o_e (hope ), oa (boat), and ow (flow). Use knowledge of the relationship between In Infant 2, students should be using their phonics skills to de code words that they encounter while reading letters and sounds to book s. They should be aware that sounding out does decode words in print. not always work becomes some words (“tricky words”) have unusual spellings. They should also be taught that t hey may have to try several different ways of sound ing out a word before they get it correct because some letters represent more than one sound. Litera cy Centres: Every classroom should have a litera cy centre that contains phonics activities and game s that the students can complete independently or in sm all groups. A ssessment T he most important aspect of phonics for Infant 2 c hildren to master is the understanding that s ome sounds, especially vowel sounds, have m ore than one possible spelling. E arly detection of and intervention for students w ho did not master the basic phonics code in Infant 1 can prevent reading difficulties from increasing. General Resources The use of a systematic synthetic phonics programme is recommended. Internet Resources For lesson plan ideas, go to http://teacher.scholastic.com/lessonplans and type phonics into the search box. 79 Infant Two R Sample Lesson Objective 20.13 After listening to a story featuring words containing the /ch/ sound, students will Lea rning Outcomes make a of words from containing this sound and read them to a partner. Infa nt 2 20.14 By the end of the lesson, students will be able to state whether the letter “c” 20.10 Read words containing vowel represents a hard or soft sound in given digraphs ea (seat), a_e (cake) ay words. (day), ew (flew), oy, (boy), ow (cow & low). 20.1 1 Note that most vowel sounds, especially the long vowel sounds Sample Teaching Strategies (ai, ee, ie, oa, ue), have a range of alternative spellings and apply Phonics teaching should continue to be a regular, this knowledge when decoding probably daily, part of language arts lessons throughout Infant 2. unfamiliar words. 20.1 2 Sound out two syllable words that Reading: Students should frequently encounter are spelt using conventional stories, poems, non-fiction and other texts that consonant, "short" vowel and contain words with the target spellings. commonly occurring "long" vowel Phonics Through Spelling: Infant 2 students letter representations should be able to use their phonics knowledge to 20.13 Read words ending in -ss -ck -ff -ll try to spell words for themselves. This is crucial for their literacy development, even though it will 20.1 4 Discriminate between words inevitably lead to some invented spelling, (see beginning with hard/soft c and g CS41). 20.1 5 Recognize words ending with Word Comparison: Students can study whole common spelling patterns, for words to detect spelling patterns. For example, example. -old, -ing, -op, -end, & students can study a series of words that contain -and. ea as a way of spelling the long e sound. Sample Student Activities Phonics should be fun for the students. Letter/sounds should be introduced in an active way, along with games, rhymes, songs, pictures, words and actions that will help the students learn and remember. Linkages See also activities under Infant 1 CS1(L) Identify and distinguish between sounds Letter Addition: Add a letter to a word to make another one, for example, add p to –ink to get CS21(R) Recognise words by sight pink. CS25(R) Read aloud Letter Take-Away: Delete a letter from a word to CS27(R) Comprehend fiction texts make a new one. for example take t from trip to get rip. CS34(W) Write stories Round-up: From a number of cards, students have CS40(W) Write clearly and legibly to round-up, that is collect together, ones with CS41(W) Spell words appropriately similar features, for example, same initial sound/onset/rime/rhyme/ending cluster and so on. 80 CS20 Apply Phonics Knowledge Knowledge Ge neral Comments See also the general comments in the Infant 1 and Infant 2 sec tions, above. The use of phonics knowledge and sounding out strategies con tinues to develop throughout the primary grades. However, by Sta ndard 1, as they increasingly use context t clues, students sho uld be progressing beyond letter-by-letter sounding out for the Content Standard 20 ma jority of words. They should be able to read an increasing Apply Phonics num ber of words by sight and they should automatically rec ognise the commonly occurring letter patterns listed in the Knowledge lea rning outcomes for this content standard. Daily doses of whole cla ss systematic phonics, therefore, may not be as useful for sta ndard 1 students as they are for the lower grades. The spelling patterns indicated in learning outcomes 20.16, Use knowledge of the 20. 17, 20.18 and 20.19 are indications for the teacher of the types of words that Standard 1 students should be able to read relationship between flue ntly and accurately. Although there should be some explicit letters and sounds to tea ching of these patterns, the concentration should be on rea ding these words in meaningful texts. decode words in print. Lite racy Centres: Every classroom should have a literacy centre tha t contains phonics activities and games that the students can com plete independently or in small groups. Rem edial work: If students are struggling to read grade level tex ts, then they may have gained an incomplete grasp of phonics in t he infant grades. Explicit instruction on the relationship bet ween sounds and the alphabet code can greatly improve these stu dents’ reading performance. As sessment Sta ndard 1 is a critical year for the diagnosis of reading diff iculties. When listening to students read, try to spot misapplications of the alphabet code. For example, some students will always read a letter the way they were originally taught it, so “please” becomes “pleess”. Also try to spot those students who are guessing at words from the first Internet Resources letter or group of letters, or who seem to have an over- reliance on picture clues. For an overview of recent research on Text to Meaning: Ask comprehension questions to check phonics: whether students can understand the words they are http://www.literacytrust.org.uk/Databa sounding out. se/Primary/phonics.html Fluency Test: Give students a short passage to read aloud. Time how long they take to read it. Count and analyse any mistakes. For other resources, see sections for Infant 1 and Infant 2. 81 Standard One R Sample Lesson Objective 20.19 Students will read and discuss a reading passage containing several words spelt using –ur, -ear and –aw.. Learning Outcomes Standard 1 20.16 Read words with common end clusters, for example -ld, -lk, - Sample Teaching Strategies sk, -mp, -sp, -ct, -ft, -lt, -pt, - xt, -lf, -nch, -lth. Explicit Phonics: Explicit phonics teaching should 20.17 Read words with common initial occur only in short lesson segments. The repetitive consonant clusters, for example, drilling of target letter patterns using flashcards or cl, cr, fl, fr, gl, gr, pl, pr, sc, scr, other devices is unlikely to be effective. sk, sl, sm, sp, spl, spr, squ, str, Analogy Phonics: Students can be explicitly taught to 20.18 Read words containing the try to decode unknown words by thinking of words they do know that look similar. Thus, a student spelling patterns: ur (burn), ear might guess toy by analogy with boy. (hear), ere (there), are (scare), Phonics and Writing: Give students daily air (fair), oor (floor), aw (law), opportunities to write original sentences and au (caught), ore (more), ea encourage them to use their phonics knowledge as (bread) they do. 20.19 Read words containing the Phonics in Context: When a student sounds out a spelling patterns ph, wh, kn, word, they should check it makes sense by using igh, ough, hard ch (choir), and context clues. words in which s, si, and ti Guided Reading: With another person, students represent a soft "j" or a "sh" should frequently read paragraph length texts that sound as in vision, pleasure, contain an increasingly wide range of words. station. Sustained Silent Reading: As a routine part of every day, students should interact with a reading book, 20.20 Use knowledge of similar words silently and by themselves. to read unfamiliar words Class Library: All classrooms should have correctly, e.g. getting slight appropriate reading books and a place where from light, shroud from loud, students can go to read them. etc. Sample Student Activities Linkages The phonics games described in the Infant 1 and Infant CS1(L) Identify and distinguish 2 sections (above) can be adapted for this level. between sounds These, and other word games, can be used for a few minutes at a time, at the beginning or end of lessons CS21(R) Recognise words by sight or as a transition between activities. CS25(R) Read aloud Matching: Match words that contain the same sound CS27(R) Comprehend fiction texts spelt in different ways: cat/kick/choir, sit, cell, science. Odd One Out: Which word does not belong: cat, cup, CS31(R) Comprehend non-fiction texts cell. CS34(W) Write stories Word Drop: Students are given a sentence with a CS40(W) Write clearly and legibly blank and three possible words on cards. They have to CS41(W) Spell words appropriately insert the word that makes most sense. Blend and Spend: Students shop for items containing specified spelling combinations. 82 C S21 Recognise Words by Sight General Comments A sight word is any word that a student can read automatically and instantly without having to decode it letter by letter. Fluent adult readers read the vast majority of words by sight. They only use decoding Content Standard 21 strategies when they encounter a new or unusual word. Recognise Words by Beginner readers read most words by decoding them. Sight However, over time, more and more words become sight words and reading fluency increases. Read words automatically and Some frequently occurring words are phonetically irregular and cannot be decoded by sounding out. instantaneously, without Unless these “tricky words” become sight words the having to decode or reader will have difficulty, even with simple texts. guess. Sight words are can be efficiently learnt by regularly reading texts. Most people can read a word by sight if they encounter it about five times in their reading in a short period of time. Important Note: Teachers should not train children to memorize words by their shape as whole units. This may work for a small number of words but it is impossible for students to memorize all the words they will eventually have to read. Nor should students always guess words from their initial few letters. Instead, it is vital that students attend to all the letters in unknown words. Ass essment Asse ssment should focus on both the fluency (spe ed/lack of hesitation) and the accuracy (elimination of mistakes) of reading Paragraph Reading: Time how long it takes a student to read a paragraph and record the number and type of mistakes. A “good” reader is one who Resources can read more than 90% of the words. This type Commonly used word lists are the Dolch of assessment can be done a few students at a lists and the Fry lists. time over a series of lessons. An internet search for “Dolch” or “Fry” Word Lists: The same technique can be used with sight words will produce many useful and appropriate word lists. If the same word list is interesting sites. used many times, however, students may memorize a word by its position on the page, thus www.teachnet.com is another useful site. giving a false score. 83 Sample Lesson Objective 21.2 Working in groups, students will match photographs of their classmates with their written names. R 21.3 In pairs, students will accurately read to each other a paragraph containing several –ing words. Le arning Outcomes In fant 1 21 .1 Track words on a page while listening to poetry, nursery Sample Teaching Strategies rhymes and familiar, repetitive Reading: Students are more likely to acquire stories, being read aloud by sight words quickly if they are given frequent another person. opportunities to read appropriate level texts, that is, texts in which they can already read at least 90% of the words. 21 .2 Read on sight a range of Predictable Texts: Repeated reading of familiar words, for examples, predictable texts can help students develop sight numbers one to twenty, labels, word reading skills. captions, names of familiar Meaningful Texts: Students are more likely to be people, days of the week, and motivated to read, and keep reading, texts with approximately fifty high content that they find interesting or useful and frequency words from books. that are connected to their own experience. Target Words: Select certain words special attention. These “target” words should be Infant 2 prominently displayed in the classroom and 21.3 Read on sight and understand referred to frequently. the meaning of words Peer-Tutoring: Pair weak students with strong containing the endings -s students in activities that involve reading. (plural), -ing (continuous tense), and -ed (past tense). 21 .4 Read on sight approximately one hundred high frequency words including numbers, seasons, months of the year, common colour words and the Sample Student Activities name of the school. Reading activities: See CS25 for choral, shared, echo and guided reading. Silent reading is also important. Standard 1 “Fishing for Words”: A student uses a fishing rod 21.5 Read on sight approximately to hook (or point to) a word selected by the one hundred and fifty high teacher or by another student. frequency words including “Bang”: Target words are placed in a box. A many that are not phonetically student has to reach into the box and pull out a spelt. word card. If the student reads the word correctly he/she gets to keep it and pull out another word. If the word card says “bang” then Linkages the student must shout bang loudly and put all his/her cards back in the box. The student with CS20(R) Apply phonics knowledge the most cards still in his/her hand at the end of CS23(R) Display word power the game, wins. CS25(R) Read aloud CS27R) Comprehend fiction texts CS31(R) Comprehend non-fiction texts CS34(W) Write stories CS41(W) Spell words appropriately 84 CS22 Use Context Clues G eneral Comments W hen people read, they use many different clues to h elp them fully comprehend the meaning of the text. F or example, when a reader comes across an unknown w ord they can use pictures, the position of the word in th e sentence, the meaning of the surrounding words, Content Standard 23 th eir knowledge of the topic , and other clues to help th em sensibly guess at the word’s meaning. Display Word Power A t the lower division level, pictures are a common and e asily used type of context clues. However, students ca n also use their innate and developing knowledge of Interpret and apply g rammar to help them determine the meaning of a se ntence. knowledge of visual images, vocabulary, A s with phonics, it is important to discourage too much g uessing when students use context clues. Students grammar, the text’s topic sh ould try to decode a word before they use a picture and textual features to to guess it. deduce the meaning of an unknown word or Assessment Matching: Students can be assessed on their phrase. ability to match a picture with a sentence. If assessing the ability to use context clues, then the sentence should contain a word that is likely to be unfamiliar to the students. Traditional grammar exercises should be avoided at the lower division level. Internet Resources For access to the latest research on reading, visit the site of the Florida Centre for Reading Research: www.fcrr.org 85 R Learning Outcomes Sample Lesson Objective 22.1 After listening to “Paddington’s Day Out”, Infant 1 students will match sentence strips with 22.1 Identify a noun in a written text. appropriate pictures. 22.2 Identify an action verb in a written text. 22.3 Identify when a noun in a written text is plural. 22.4 Identify a pronoun in a written text. Sample Teaching Strategies Grammar Teaching: The explicit teaching of Infant 2 grammar should occur only in short lesson 22.5 Identify, and explain the purposes of, segments. It is not necessary for students to full stops and question marks in memorize the definitions of parts of speech. written texts. Topic Discussion: Discussing the topic of a text with students before it is read is likely to help 22.6 Identify a proper noun in a written them understand its meaning better. This is text. because they will be able to use their background 22.7 Identify, and explain the purpose of, knowledge to help them comprehend unknown an adjective in a written text. words. 22.8 Use visual images to predict the Content Themes: The use of a thematic meaning of unfamiliar words. approach, in which several texts on the same topic are studied, can deepen comprehension. 22.9 Identify a compound word in a written Picture Clues: Even when reading isolated words, text. objects, actions, pictures, associations and the use of the word in sentences can aid Standard 1 comprehension. 22.11 Use knowledge of common prefixes and suffixes to identify the meaning of a word. 22.10 Use background knowledge of the topic to identify the meaning of an unknown word. Sample Student Activities Linkages Fill in the Blanks: Given picture and other CS6(V) Comprehend and interpret visual clues, students complete sentences with images blanks spaces representing words. Blank-Game: Two students are given the CS23(R) Display word power same sentence with a word missing. They CS27(R) Comprehend fiction texts simultaneously write down a word to go in CS31(R) Comprehend non-fiction texts the space. They get a point if both CS34(W) Write stories students have the same word. This can be CS43(W) Use punctuation appropriately made easier by having the onset of the CS44(W) Apply correct grammatical forms in word present: “The boy ch____ the dog.” writing. Match Pictures and Sentences: Students CS45(W) Incorporate stylistic devices in original have to match a picture with an appropriate writing. sentence of text. 86 CS23 Display Word Power Ge neral Comments Str ong vocabulary development helps students improve the ir literacy skills. The best way of helping vocabulary gro wth is to develop habits of independent reading. Stu dents who have a limited vocabulary range may ben efit from explicit vocabulary instruction. Teachers Content Standard 23 sho uld use stories and other texts to introduce Display Word Power app roximately ten words each week. Low er division students may be confused by dictionary def initions. They are more likely to understand Use a range of syn onyms and analogies, and to learn words by using vocabulary items to the m in meaningful, original sentences. convey precise meaning, Low er division students can be taught strategies for differentiate between lea rning new words. Their appreciation of new and un usual words should also be encouraged. words of similar meaning, homophones Th e rote memorization of word meanings is rarely eff ective. and homonyms, and analyse the structure of words. As sessment Ass essment of word power is most effective if the stu dents are required to use target vocabulary in wa ys that indicate whether the meaning of the word is und erstood. - Students use their own words to explain sentences in a story containing target vocabulary - Students use target vocabulary words in original sentences. - Students supply give words of similar/opposite meaning to target vocabulary. Internet Resources www.doe.mass.edu/read/presentations/coyne_ readingfirst.ppsv www.ciera.org/library/presos/2002/2002csi/20 02csicarlisle/02csijcv.pdf 87 Sample Lesson Objective R 23.2 Working in pairs, students will list their favourite words from nursery rhymes. Sample Teaching Strategies Reading: Vocabulary development occurs when students encounter words while reading texts of interest to them, Learning Outcomes including stories, poems and non-fiction writing. Using words: Once students have identified new words, In fant 1 they need to be given opportunities to use them for 23 .1 Recognize unusual words purposeful written and spoken communication. encountered in nursery rhymes Modeling: Teachers can deliberately use unusual words in and frequently read stories. their conversations with students. This should be done when the context makes the meaning of the word clear. In fant 2 Teachers can also express enjoyment of and interest in unusual words. 23.2 Show interest in learning about Five Minute Activities: Play vocabulary building games (see new words encountered in below) for five minutes at the beginning or end of the reading. lesson or as a break between activities. Making Connections: Teachers can help students connect 23.3 Read and understand common new words with ones they already know. compound words and split Analogy: Telling a short story to illustrate the meaning of a them into their component word is usually more effective than giving definitions. parts, e.g. himself, handbag, teaspoon. SLAP: Say the word Look for clues 23 .4 Identify the opposites of Ask yourself what the word might mean familiar words. Put the word in a passage in the place of a familiar word to see if it makes sense. St andard 1 No learning outcomes relate to sta ndard 1 for this content standard. Sample Student Activities Story Vocabulary: Students underline unknown words in a short story. Word discussion: After listening to a nursery rhyme, students discuss the meaning of words identified by the teacher. (e.g. pale, crown, tumbled, vinegar in “Jack and Jill”) Opposites Game: Each student is given a card with a word on it, they have to find their partner who has a word with the opposite meaning. Compound Word Game: Same as opposites game (above) except that the two partners each have one half Linkages of a compound word. CS9(S) Express opinions and My Word Jar: Each student has a jar with a lid in which communicate ideas they keep their favourite words. CS21(R) Recognize words by sight Word games CS22(R) Use context clues Morning Circle: Regular classroom discussion about events, books and experiences can enhance students’ CS24(R) Use a dictionary word power. CS27(R) Comprehend fiction texts Beat the Teacher: Challenge students to find a word CS34(W) Write stories that the teacher does not know. CS45(W) Incorporate stylistic devices in Word of the Day: Each student chooses a word that original writing they will use at least three times that day. 88 C S24 Use a Dictionary General Comments A “children’s” dictionary is usually appropriate for lower division students. These dictionaries usually have lots of pictures and simplified word definitions. However, more advanced readers may be frustrated by the limited number of words that Content Standard 24 “children’s” dictionaries contain. Use a Dictionary In lower division, students encounter dictionaries Use a dictionary to find and begin to understand how to locate words within them. However, at this stage, many will be information pertaining to unable to understand the abstract definitions of the spelling, meaning, words. For vocabulary building, it is usually preferable to give analogies and examples. derivation, syllabication, parts of speech, inflection, and pronunciation of words and to discover new words. Assessment The key skill to assess in lower division is the ability to put letters and words in alphabetical order. This can be done through activities involving manipulating letter and word cards. Internet Resources Sites of major dictionary publishers often have teaching resources. For example: www.macmillandictionary.com/school 89 Sample Lesson Objective 24.2 Working in groups, students will place a series of letter cards in correct alphabetical order. R 24.3 Students will find the spelling of a word in a children’s picture dictionary. Learning Outcomes Infant 1 Sample Teaching Strategies 24.1 Recite the names of letters in correct alphabetical order. Students can learn letter names at the same time that students first encounter letter shapes and Infant 2 letter sounds. 24.2 Place words that begin with Note that spending a few minutes on dictionary different letters in correct activities regularly is likely to be more productive alphabetical order. than taking entire lessons. 24.3 With help, find information in Alphabet Chart: All lower division classrooms simple dictionaries with should have an alphabet chart or wall frieze. illustrations. Class Dictionary: Over time, a class dictionary can be constructed. Whenever students encounter a new or unusual vocabulary item they Standard 1 can nominate it for inclusion in the class 24.4 Place a series of words that dictionary. begin with the same letter in Alphabet Poem: Students have to add correct alphabetical order. appropriate words to an alliterative poem, for example, Artful Andy ______ an alligator. Sample Student Activities My Dictionary: Each student can have a personal dictionary, initially of blank pages, in which they write or paste words of interest and draw pictures. Hunt the Word: Students race to be the first one to find a word in the dictionary. Jumbled Order Games: Students put a series of Linkages letter cards in alphabetical order, or in reverse CS20(R) Apply phonics knowledge alphabetical order. Students can also put series of words in order. CS22(R) Read words by sight Word of the Day: Each day a different student CS23(R) Display word power can select a word from a dictionary. All the CS34(W) Write stories students then need to try to use the word during the day. CS38(W) Plan and edit writing CS41(W) Spell words appropriately 90 CS25 Read Aloud G eneral Comments T he ability to read texts aloud fluently and a ccurately is central to successful literacy d evelopment. Consequently, students should get f requent opportunities to practice this skill. Content Standard 25 F rom the first day of school Infant One students Read Aloud c an be involved in activities that establish p ositive attitudes towards reading, towards books Confidently, fluently and and towards reading aloud. In the first weeks of s chool, teachers may ask students to “read” accurately read texts b ooks made up mostly of pictures with few or no aloud, with appropriate words. rhythm, pacing, volume, T owards the end of first term, after the students intonation and stress. have begun to learn the alphabet code through t heir study of phonics, students can be asked to r ead short, phonetically spelt sentences from a b oard or chart. L ater in the year, as the student’s knowledge of p honics and irregularly spelt “tricky words” i ncreases, they can be asked to read aloud from b ooks that have a repetitive, and if possible, a r hyming structure. I t is extremely important for the teacher to model g ood reading by reading aloud to the students e very day. Assessment The teacher should listen to each student read individually as part of the end of year assessment, using sentences containing short, phonetically spelt and other commonly occurring words. A simple Internet Resources rubric can be used, for example: Internet (a) Reads quickly without making mistakes The Importance of Using Multiple Methods of (b) Reads quickly but makes mistakes Reading Instruction: (c) Reads hesitantly without mistakes http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/educ (d) Reads hesitantly with mistakes ation/general.html (e) Reads one or two words only in each sentence. (f) Cannot read the sentences or identify any words. 91 Infant One R Sample Lesson Objective 25.1 By the end of the lesson, students will have Learn i n g Outcomes read sentences aloud that contain familiar CVC words. Infant 1 25.1 Read consonant-vowel- consonant and vowel- consonant-consonant words a nd short sentences containing t hese words aloud to the Sample Teaching Strategies t eacher. Choral Reading: The reading of a text by the whole class or by smaller groups of students is a 25.2 I ndividually and in chorus, read central part of developing Infant One reading a loud words which are used on skills. In choral reading, the same text is usually a regular basis, e.g. numbers, read many times, but not always by the same days, and weather words. group of students. Choral reading helps students decode words, 25.3 R ead, or pretend to read to recognise words by sight, learn appropriate o ther people, dolls and toys. pronunciation, and appreciate the rhythm of the language. 25.4 T rack text in the right order, Teachers should also consider the strategies and i .e. left to right, top to bottom, activities listed in the Infant 2 and Standard 1 p age to page. sections below. 25.5 I n chorus and along with the t eacher, read a familiar short story or poem aloud. Sample Student Activities Infant 2 & Standard 1 See fo llowing section Giving beginner readers the opportunity to “show off” their ability to read aloud can be an effective motivational tool. Read and Record: Students read aloud or recite a familiar story or poem and record themselves Linkages using a tape recorder. CS13(S) Perform Drama CS14(S) Recite Poetry CS20(R) Apply Phonics Knowledge CS21(R) Recognise words by sight CS27(R) Comprehend non-fiction texts 92 CS25 Read Aloud General Comments In class reading aloud by the students should occur regularly. Since some students, especially those with reading difficulties, may be reluctant to read aloud in class, it is important to create an environment of safety, trust, and respect for all. When reading aloud becomes a familiar part of the class routine, students will become more comfortable with it, and more willing to participate. Content Standard 25 Read Aloud The selection of texts for the students to read aloud requires careful consideration. A student should be able to read at least 90% of the words in a given text. If they Confidently, fluently and cannot, then the text is too difficult for them and an easier accurately read texts one should be found. Asking students to struggle to read difficult texts may lead to frustration and a lack of aloud, with appropriate motivation and is likely to hinder reading for meaning. rhythm, pacing, volume, Texts at this level should mostly contain phonetically spelt intonation and stress. and common “tricky” words. Some words will contain more than one syllable and simple sentence structures should predominate. Standard One students should be able to read a range of fiction and non-fiction texts. They should be beginning to vary their voice use as they read and they should be beginning to show an awareness of their audience. Assessment Students should be assessed on the accuracy and fluency of their reading as well as on the comprehension of the texts they read aloud. They can be given a short passage to read and then be asked to retell, in their own words, what they text was about. The following is a simple rubric for reading fluency and accuracy: (a) Reads quickly without making mistakes Internet Resources (b) Reads quickly but makes mistakes (c) Reads hesitantly without mistakes Improving Reading Performance: No Child Left (d) Reads hesitantly with mistakes Behind (e) Reads one or two words only in each sentence. www.ed.gov/programs/nclbbrs/2004/reading. (f) Cannot read the sentences or identify any words pdf 93 Infant Two & Standard One R Sample Lesson Objective 25.6 During guided reading time, the students will read a familiar story to the teacher. Learning Outcomes Infan t 1 See p receding section. Sample Teaching Strategies Shared Reading: The teacher uses a big book or Infant 2 large chart. The teacher and the students read 25.6 Read simple stories independently, pointing the text together, often with the teacher pointing to words as they read. to the word or words that the students should 25.7 Understand that a line of text and a sentence read. are not the same thing. Echo Reading: The teacher reads a line of text or 25.8 Pronounce the majority of phonetically spelt, a sentence, pointing to the words. The student one and two syllable words, correctly. then re-reads the same words, also pointing to them. 25.9 Follow words with eyes without having to Guided Reading: The teacher guides an individual point. or a small group of students as they read a text. 25.10 Individually read aloud sentences from a The teacher can help the students decode words familiar story or poem to a group or the successfully and explore the meaning of the text. whole class. Standard 1 Sample Student Activities 25.11 When reading aloud, expect sentences to Giving beginner readers the opportunity to “show make sense and re-read when they do not. off” their ability to read aloud can be an effective 25.12 When reading aloud, recognize that full-stops motivational tool. and capital letters mark the beginning and end of sentences and pause at full-stops. Reading to the Class: Students should frequently 25.13 Individually read aloud a familiar short story. read aloud to the whole class. Each student can be given a number and lots drawn to determine which 25.14 Pronounce the majority of phonetically spelt student will read. Several students may read the words and common irregularly spelt words same text through the course of the week. correctly. Small Group Reading and Peer Reading: Pairs and 25.15 Show awareness of the audience when small groups of students can share a book and read reading aloud. it aloud to each other. More advanced readers can help those who are struggling. This activity helps all students practice reading aloud. Tape-assisted Reading: In a learning centre, the teacher can place audio-cassettes/CDs of books. Using headphones, the student follows the text while listening to the cassette. This will help the Linkages student appreciate how a good reader varies their CS13(S) Perform Drama use of the voice when reading aloud. CS14(S) Recite Poetry Read and Record: Students read aloud a familiar CS20(R) Apply Phonics Knowledge story or poem and record themselves using a tape recorder. CS21(R) Recognise words by sight CS27(R) Comprehend non-fiction texts 94 C S26 Select Appropriate Reading Material Gen eral Comments Mot ivation is extremely important for developing reading skil ls, and a love of reading is fostered when children hav e choices in what they read: they are more interested and engaged in reading when they can choose their read ing materials. For students, reading should be a way to e xplore new interests and to answer real questions. Content Standard 26 Select Appropriate Students need guidance in making good choices. Reading mat erial should not be too difficult for the child's reading Reading Material leve l. Generally speaking, a reader needs to read words with 90% accuracy. Students also need guidance in cho osing books, magazines, or newspapers that are Independently select inte resting and well written. reading material that is At t he beginning of the year, it is a good idea to ask each appropriate to purpose stud ent’s parents to contribute one reading book to the and reading level by classroom library. using textual information and background knowledge Assessment Throughout the course of a term, the teacher should observe which books students are reading and whether they choose to read a variety of books. Students can be asked to keep a record of what they read and the teacher should ask them questions about their choices and about their opinions of the books they are reading. Internet Resources Real World Approaches to Reading by Alta Allen, ( http://www.learnnc.org /articles/reallit0406-1) 95 Sample Lesson Objective At the beginning of the lesson, students will R select a story book from the classroom library and read it silently for fifteen minutes. Le arning Outcomes Sample Teaching Strategies Classroom library: Every classroom should have Infant 1 its own library of suitable books. The library No learning outcomes relate to Infant should include a variety of fiction and non-fiction 1 f or this content standard. However, books and other texts attractively arranged. Inf ant I students should still be given Every student should get the chance to visit the the chance to choose books for library as part of the regular class time. the mselves. Guidance: Explicitly teach students how to choose books. Care of Books: Students should be encouraged to Infant 2 care for and respect the books they are reading. 26 .1 Select and read for pleasure Duty List: Tidying the classroom library can be an stories with repetitive and item on the class duty list. predictable patterns. 26.2 With guidance select books appropriate to their interest Sample Student Activities Uninterrupted Sustained Silent Reading: Time should be and reading level from a shelf made available for uninterrupted sustained silent reading of books in the classroom. (USSR)or Drop Everything and Read) (DEAR) every day. During these periods, each student should have their 26,3 Choose to frequently re-read own book, one that is different than the books other favourite stories and non- students are reading. The teacher should set clear rules fiction books. for USSR/DEAR time, for example: (1) everyone should read a book of their choice, (2) no talking or moving, (3) no interrupting. etc. Standard 1 Sharing Reading: Students should be encouraged to 26.4 Independently select fiction share what they are reading with the teacher, their peers and non-fiction books and their parents. appropriate to their interest Reading Records: Each student, especially in Standard 1, and reading level from a shelf can have a personal record sheet where they list the of books in the classroom. titles and authors of the books they choose to read. of book. The record sheet can have a separate section for each type of book, e.g. story book, poetry and non- fiction book. Linkages CS6(V) Comprehend and interpret visual images CS9(S) Express opinions and communicate ideas. CS259R) Read aloud. CS28(R) Interpret stories CS29(R) Relate personally to stories CS309R) Read and relate to poetry CS31(R) Comprehend non-fiction texts. CS34(W) Write stories 96 C S27 Comprehend Fiction Texts Gen eral Comments The m ain purpose of reading is comprehension and read ing should be viewed as a pleasurable, entertaining activ ity. Lower division students should be exposed to a var iety of interesting stories that they can relate to. Content Standard 27 Being able to read means more than being able to Comprehend Fiction decode symbols on a page; it means having a full unde rstanding of the message being communicated in Texts print . Sometimes students display impressive decoding skills , making it appear that they are good readers, while they do not understand the meaning of what they are r eading. Students who can decode but not comp rehend usually struggle in middle division. Find, sequence and retell This content standard refers both to stories students story information. read for themselves and ones read to them by the teach er. Teachers should read stories to students every day o r almost every day. Simple texts with repetitive and/ or rhyming structures should be used in Infant One. By Standard One, a wide range of stories on a varie ty of topics should be used. CS27 relates to literal comprehension. Interpretation and c ritical comprehension are covered by CS28 and 29. As sessment Com prehension Check: As students read or listen to a sto ry, ask them simple questions to check their com prehension. Wr itten Response: Students can write words, sentences and short paragraphs about the books they read. They can also draw pictures. Not e: A good performance when reading aloud is not a reli able indicator of that student's reading Resources com prehension. However, frequent mispronunciation of A good article for the general reader is: wo rds read aloud often indicates a low level of http://www.dltk-kids.com com prehension. /articles/whyreadingmatters.htm Teaching Reading: Assessing Reading Proficiency http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/reading/as sessread.htm 97 Sample Lesson Objective 27.3 After listening to the story, “The Pied-Piper of Hamelin,” students will put pictures of R the main events of the story in the correct order. Le arning Outcomes No te: These learning outcomes Sample Teaching Strategies re late to texts that the students re ad independently as well as Read Alouds: Teachers should read stories every day te xts that are read aloud in class. or almost every day. Preferably, big books and books with attractive pictures should be used. In fant 1 Repeated Reading: It is beneficial for lower division 27.1 Re-enact familiar, simple, students to reread the same story many times. As stories through role play. they re-read, their comprehension increases and 27 .2 Recall, word for word, phrases their understanding of vocabulary and grammar that are repeated several times develops. in a simple story. Pre-Reading Activities: Setting the scene, relating the topic to the students’ experiences, eliciting 27 .3 Recount, re-enact with toys, or predictions from the title, pictures or format of the sequence using pictures, the book, setting guiding questions and pre-teaching main events of familiar nursery vocabulary are all activities that can be done before a rhymes and stories. story is read. During Reading: Stop and ask the students Infant 2 comprehension questions and encourage them to predict what they think will happen next in the story. 27.4 Retell, in the correct order, the After Reading: Students can retell the story in a main events of a simple story. variety of ways: oral summary, written response, 27.5 Recall one or two important drawing, role-play and so on. points after listening to a short text. Sample Student Activities Standard 1 27.6 Describe characters Sequencing: After a story has been read several encountered in a story, using times, give each student a picture of an event in the original words. story and ask the students to stand in a line with the pictures in the correct order. Visualisation: Ask the students to describe a picture they have in their head after they have read the story. Drawing: Students can draw a picture of a character Linkages in a story and write one or more sentences about the CS2(L) Listen for information picture they have drawn. CS6(V) Comprehend and interpret visual Role-play: Small groups of students role-play a images. scene from the story. CS10(S) Narrate real and fictional events Drama Freeze Frame: Give a group of students a CS13(S) Perform drama sentence from the passage. Ask them to pretend to CS23(R) Display word power be a still photograph showing the scene. CS26(R) Select appropriate reading material CS28(R) Interpret stories CS29(R) Relate personally to stories. CS34(W) Write stories 98 CS28 Interpret Stories General Comments Interpretation and inferring require students to combine their own knowledge and experience with the meaning of a story to arrive at a deeper understanding of it. Unlike literal comprehension, covered by CS27, CS28 and CS29 require students make judgments about what Content Standard 28 they have read. Interpret Stories To help students begin to interpret texts, they need to be taught some simple reading comprehension strategies, such as asking questions about the text and Discuss story plot, making predictions. They can begin to learn these setting, strategies from the earliest stages of learning to read. characterization, For interpretation to occur, it is often necessary for a structure and story to be read several times and to be analyzed in likely outcomes; and several different ways. The same story, therefore, can be used for a series of lessons, perhaps spanning a compare, contrast and whole week. Activities done before the story is read, evaluate different either for the first time or on later occasions, are also crucial to the development of interpretative skills. stories. When a unit theme has been identified, stories should relate to this theme. These stories should also be linked to non-fiction texts on the same topic. Stories can also relate to another subject area such as social studies or science. Assessment Discussion: During discussion and questioning, the teacher should monitor which students give answers that reflect interpretative thinking. Questioning: Questions that ask “why” usually test inferring and interpretation. Internet Resources Two very useful booklets that can be downloaded are: (1) What is Reading Comprehension and (2) Strategies to Develop Reading Comprehension are available at http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/primary/publications /literacy/1162245/ 99 Sample Lesson Objective 28.2 While listening to the story, “The Tin Man” students will make predictions about what R happens next. L earning Outcomes I nfant 1 28.1 Discuss the causes of events in Sample Teaching Strategies simple stories. Read Alouds: Teachers should read texts to the 2 8.2 Predict the next section of a students every day or almost every day. story with a repetitive, Before Reading: Discuss the topic with the students predictable pattern. to activate the knowledge and experience they already have. During Reading: Give the students opportunities to Infant 2 ask and answer questions, especially “why” 28.3 Discuss the connections questions. between events in stories. After Reading: Ask questions such as “what do you think about . . ?” and “Who is the most important 2 8.4 State, with reasons, whether character?”. they think a character is good “Why” Questions: Questions should consistently or bad. require the students to explain why something happened instead of just stating what happened. Standard 1 Student Questions: Encourage the students to ask their own questions about the story. Initially, the 2 8.5 Discuss multiple causes of an teacher will have to model the type of questions to event in a story. ask. 2 8.6 Discuss the main theme of a Serial Questioning: A series of questions can be asked story. of the same student. After each answer, the teacher 28.7 Based on the plot, discuss why should give feedback, hints and prompts. events happen the way they do in a simple story. 28.8 Evaluate, with reasons, the actions of story characters, for example, if they were brave/foolish/selfish/generous, Sample Student Activities or acted in reasonable or unreasonable ways. Picture Sequencing: After a story has been read several times, give each student a picture of an event in the story and ask the students to stand in a line with the pictures in the correct order. Linkages Then ask them to explain how the events in one CS5(L) Respond to spoken texts. picture led to the events in another. CS6(V) Comprehend and interpret visual images. Hot-seating: The teacher pretends to be a CS9(S) Express opinions and communicate ideas. character from the story. The students ask the CS10(S) Narrate real and fictional events character questions. Students can also take the CS13(S) Perform drama. hot-seat. CS23(R) Display word power Matching: Students have to select which of three CS26(R) Select appropriate reading material. possible sentences best explains what caused the CS27:(R) Find, sequence and re-tell story events in a picture. information. CS29(R) Relate personally to stories. CS34(W) Write stories 100 CS29 Relate Personally to Stories General Comments This content standard, like the ones that precede it, relates to reading comprehension. The strategies and activities used for CS27 and 28 Content Standard 29 also apply to CS29. Relate Personally to In order to make reading a meaningful Stories experience, teachers need to help students link what they are reading to their own ideas and personal experiences. This implies that much Connect stories to class time needs to be spent talking about the stories that the students are reading a and personal choices, listening to. experiences, emotions, ideas and moral values. Stories can also be a good vehicle for tackling prejudice and intolerance, and for dealing with difficult topics, such as moving to a new school, bullying, or death. Assessment It is difficult to test a student’s personal responses to a story. Observation of emotional response is, however, possible. When observing a child, ask yourself questions such as: Did the child laugh, look sad, express surprise (etc)? Did the child mention a similar thing that happened to him/her or someone he/she knows? Did the child ask questions or want to talk about Resources what he/she had read? The teacher should develop observation criteria and check-lists to make this more systematic and objective. http://www.readwritethink.org, a web-site of the International reading Association, contains much excellent and practical advice on planning language arts lessons. 101 Sample Lesson Objective R 29.1 After listening to “Hansel and Gretel”, students will share their feelings about the story in a whole class discussion. L earning Outcomes Infant 1 29.1 Respond emotionally to stories and experience satisfaction, enjoyment, sadness, etc 2 9.2 State whether they like or Sample Teaching Strategies dislike a story Multiple Reading: Deeper level comprehension of I nfant 2 a story usually requires it to be listened to or read several times. During the first reading, the No learning outcomes relate to Infant focus can be on literal comprehension. However, 2 for this content standard. However, after the basic plot has been understood, the the development of 29.1 and 29.2 teacher can guide the students into a more wide should continue. ranging discussion through the use of carefully targeted questions. To do this well, it is usually S tandard 1 necessary for the teacher to prepare these questions before the class begins. 29.3 Link events and characters in stories to their own experience. See also sample teaching strategies for CS28. Sample Student Activities Discussion: Whole class and small group Linkages discussion is very important in developing deeper CS5(L) Respond to spoken texts. understanding of stories. For example, at any CS7(V) Respond to visual images. stage in the reading process, the teacher can CS9(S) Express opinions and communicate encourage students to share ideas about the ideas. general topic of the book. CS10(S) Narrate real and fictional events Drawing: Students can express what they CS13(S) Perform drama. think/feel about a story in a drawing. CS23(R) Display word power CS26(R) Select appropriate reading material. CS27:(R) Find, sequence and re-tell story information. CS29(R) Relate personally to stories. CS34(W) Write stories 102 CS30 Read and Relate to Poetry General Comments The regular reading and reciting of poetry is an important part of students’ oral language development, including the phonological awareness skills that are vital for the learning of phonics. Most students enter school with some knowledge of poetry gained from saying rhymes and singling Content Standard 30 songs at home. Teachers should encourage students to share this knowledge and then build on it by Read and Relate to introducing students to a wider range of poems. Poetry When planning poetry lessons, teachers should combine learning outcomes from CS14, Recite Poetry, CS30, Read and Relate to Poetry, and CS35, Comprehend and Write Poetry. interpret poetry, and Lower division students like to read and recite make connections to familiar poems and rhymes frequently. These personal choices, repeated recitations help with their understanding of the nature and structure of language. experiences, emotions, ideas and moral values. Teachers can read aloud, for entertainment, poems that the students would be unable to read for themselves. Assessment Observation: During choral reading, observe whether all the students are actively participating by saying the words and making actions. Questioning: Ask literal and inferential questions to check student understanding of simple poems. Internet Resources Rhyming Games: Games in which students to supply a “word that rhymes with . . .” can be There are a large number of poetry sites on the used for assessment. internet. For example: www.poetryzone.ndirect.co.uk, 103 R Sample Lesson Objective 30.2 By the end of the lesson, students will have read the poem “The Frog” and will be able to recite it using appropriate actions. Learning Outcomes Infant 1 30.1 Connect the text of a poem to Sample Teaching Strategies accompanying pictures. Repeated Readings: Lower division students Infant 2 benefit from repeated reading and reciting of the 30.2 Read aloud a short, single same poem. Poetry Comprehension: To help students verse, poem. understand a poem, follow this procedure: (1) Read the poem to the class. Standard 1 (2) Ask the students for their first ideas about it. 30.3 Read a short poem and discuss (3) Read it again and ask some of the students to its meaning. read it aloud. (4) Ask questions to help the students understand vocabulary words. (5) Ask questions to help students notice rhyming patterns. (6) Ask the students to explain in their own words what the poem means. Sample Student Activities Anthologies: Students can collect poems in individual or class anthologies. Reading and Listening: Students can listen to poems being read on tape or CD as they follow the words in print. Linkages CS1(L) Identify and distinguish between sounds. CS5(L) Respond to spoken texts CS14(S) Recite poetry CS25(R) Read aloud CS35(W) Write poetry 104 CS31 Comprehend Non-Fiction Texts General Comments If students are to succeed in a wide range of school subjects, their ability to read, comprehend and extract information from non-fiction texts needs to be developed. Furthermore, providing texts on non-fiction topics of interest to the students can motivate them to read. Lower division students are fascinated by the real world and they should be encouraged to look in books for the answers to the questions they have about it. Content Standard 31 Non-fiction texts can be used to teach a wide range of Comprehend Non- language arts skills including oral language skills, Fiction Texts vocabulary, phonics, sight word reading, comprehension strategies and writing skills. It is essential that students are exposed to a range of non- Extract, sequence, fiction texts during the lower division years. Comprehension is likely to be greater if the students’ synthesise and use background knowledge of the topic is activated. One way information contained in of achieving this is to use a thematic approach so that the students study several texts on the same topic. These non-fiction texts. texts can also be related to the theme of lessons in another subject area such as social studies or science. Assessment Games: Games are useful for assessing whether students can follow written instructions. Give a student the instructions on a card and ask him/her to perform them in front of the class. Grasp of vocabulary can also be assessed in this manner. Reading Level: Effective assessment will only occur if the reading level of the texts are appropriate for the students. Mostly, reading material for Internet Resources lower division students contains short, Much useful advice about the teaching of reading at simple sentences made up of regularly lower levels is contained in a booklet downloadable spelt or frequently occurring words. from http://www.ite.org.uk/ite_topics/reading_ks2_3 105 Sample Lesson Objective R 32.1 Students will choose a non-fiction book from the classroom library and read it with a partner. Learning Outcomes Sample Teaching Strategies Infant 1 31.1 Read and follow a simple, Lower division students should be using short single step instruction. reading texts every week. While many of these texts will be stories and poems, some should be short non-fiction passages. These passages can 31.2 Read simple, highly pictorial, be on a topic of interest to the children or on a non-fiction texts on familiar topic that relates to the curriculum theme in themes of interest. language arts or in another subject. Infant 2 A variety of pre- during and post- reading strategies should be used including examining the No learning outcomes relate to Infant cover, title and pictures of the book, pre-teaching 2 for this content standard. However, vocabulary and activating background knowledge. the development of 31.2 should continue. The classroom library should include a range of non-fiction books. Standard 1 31.3 Read and follow a set of instructions telling them to perform three consecutive actions. Sample Student Activities The development of 31.2 should Drawing: After a non-fiction text has been read, continue in Standard 1. students can draw about it. Writing: After a non-fiction text has been read, students can write a sentence about it. In Infant 1 and 2, invented spelling should be expected. By Standard 1, students should be spelling many words conventionally.. Teaching Opportunities: The teacher can look for real opportunities for students to follow instructions, for example, taking messages to another teacher. Linkages Following procedures: Making items by following CS2(L) Listen for information instructions can be part of an expressive arts CS10(S) Narrate real and fictional events lesson. Performing actions by following instructions can be incorporated into P.E. CS23(R) Display word power CS27(R) Comprehend fiction texts CS32(R) Research from non-fiction texts. CS33(R) Analyse the language, structure and nature of texts CS37(W) Write non-fiction 106 CS32 Research from Non-Fiction Texts General Comments Lower division students should be introduced to content area readers and textbooks, that is, books that present Content Standard 32 factual information in such subject areas as science, Research from Non- social studies, health, and math. They should begin to understand that non-fiction texts are written and Fiction Texts structured differently than stories. Locate information in The selection of appropriate materials is crucial in developing the students’ abilities to work with non- non-fiction texts using fiction texts. If students feel threatened by the knowledge of the complexity of a text or by a lack of familiarity with the text’s topic, then they are unlikely to feel motivated to features of a book or read. text, by using the Students should be able to read accurately at least 90% internet, and by of the words of any text that they are required to interpreting diagrams, extract information from. tables and visual images. The teaching of this content standard can be effectively a chieved by linking the texts being studied to a theme. Assessment Students can demonstrate their knowledge of the information contained in a text in a variety of ways: making lists, making diagrams or drawing, responding to oral questions, or talking about the topic. Internet Resources A 12 page booklet, Using Non-fiction in the primary grades, by Alan Granowsky, can be downloaded from http://sadlierconnection.com/resources/items/file s/9K15F_CAR_WhitePaper_vol8_R.pdf 107 Sample Lesson Objective 32.1 After the text, “Hurricanes” has been read R aloud in class, the students will be able to list two pieces of information, orally. L earning Outcomes Infant 1 Sample Teaching Strategies No learning outcomes relate to Infant Background Knowledge: Before they read non- 1 for this content standard. fiction texts, it is important to activate students’ background knowledge, for example by having a general discussion on the topic in which students I nfant 2 are asked to share their knowledge and experience. 3 2.1 List one or two pieces of Other pre-reading activities, such a pre-teaching information from a short non- vocabulary, and making predictions from the title, fiction text. cover and pictures of a book, can also be used. S tandard 1 K-W-L: Create a chart with three columns, “What I Know” (K), “What I Want to Know” (W) and “What I 3 2.2 List the key points from a short have Learned” (W). non-fiction text. Sample Student Activities Lower Division students can read texts aloud, read them silently, or listen to them being read by the teacher. Over a period of time, they should experience all three of these techniques. Practical Activities: The students’ reading of a non- fiction texts should be accompanied by a range of other activities on the same topic. For example, simple scientific experiments, observations, nature walks, watching videos, making models, making Linkages posters, and drawing pictures. CS2(L) Listen for information Writing: Research from non-fiction texts should CS10(S) Narrate real and fictional generate writing activities, for example making lists, events labeling pictures or filling in check-lists. CS27(R) Comprehend fiction texts CS31(R) Comprehend non-fiction texts CS33(R) Analyse the language, structure and nature of texts CS37(W) Write non-fiction 108 CS33 Analyse the Language, Nature and Structure of Texts General Comments Content Standard 32 Before the age of five, many children do not easily and clearly distinguish between fact and Analyse the Language, fantasy and they may often make up stories Nature and Structure without fully understanding what the are of Texts doing. As students progress to Standard 1, they should begin to have a clear understanding of Evaluate and discuss the the difference between fact and fantasy, both language, utility, in their own lives and in the books they are reading. purpose, reliability and structure of written texts. Assessment Give students several sentences on a topic they know well, for example, an animal, familiar place or thing. Ask them to say which sentence is true and which is made up. The sentences should be straight forward and not designed to trick the students. Internet Resources A variety of lesson plan ideas can be found at www.readwritethink.org/lessons http://www.glc.k12.ga.us/BuilderV03/LPTools/lpsha red/lpdisplay.asp?LPID=19527 provides a lesson plan idea for distinguishing between fact and fantasy. 109 R Sample Lesson Objective Le arning Outcomes 33.1 Given two reading passages, the students will be able to state, with reasons, which is Infant 1 factual and which is fantasy. 33.1 Understand the difference between fact and fantasy. Infant 2 No learning outcomes relate Infant 2 for this content standard. Standard 1 33 .2 Recognize that "fairy stories" Sample Teaching Strategies and other traditional stories often follow a similar pattern and often have distinctive Students need explicit instruction on the beginning, middle and ending ways that fiction and non-fiction texts are structures. different. For example, ask the students to compare the covers of story books and non- fiction books. They can also compare the types of pictures found in fiction books and non-fiction books. Students should also be helped to recognize that certain phrase, for example, “once upon a time,” indicate that a story is being read. Sample Student Activities Read the students an extract of a fantasy story Linkages about an animal and then read them a passage CS2(L) Listen for information from a children’s encyclopedia about the same CS10(S) Narrate real and fictional animal. Have the children explain which one is events real (and why) and which one is made up. CS31(R) Comprehend Non-Fiction texts Students can write a few sentences about a person they know, then they can write a few CS32(R) Research from non-fiction sentences about a person they have invented. texts. CS37(W) Write non-fiction 111 Writing CS34 Write Stories CS35 Write Poetry CS36 Write Letters CS37 Write Non-Fiction CS38 Plan and Edit Writing CS39 Present Written Work Appropriately CS40 Write Clearly and Legibly CS41 Spell Words Appropriately CS42 Use Capital Letters Appropriately CS43 Use Punctuation Appropriately CS44 Apply Correct Grammatical Forms in Writing CS45 Incorporate Stylistic Devices in Original Writing 112 The Planning Guide 34 Write Stories Ge neral Comments Sto ry writing helps develop a wide variety of literacy an d thinking skills. Students should frequently compose sto ries and put elements of them in writing. This pro cess involves students in making lots of decisions: Content Standard 34 abo ut stories and characters, spelling, grammar, vocabulary and the logical sequencing of ideas. Write Stories Re ading stories is closely linked to learning to write the m. As students read, enjoy and interpret narrative Compose stories using a tex ts in the first years of primary school, they can also be learning to write stories for themselves. variety of genres, techniques, structures Eve n before students can write words, they can express sto ry ideas through scribbles and drawings. As they and settings. pro gress through lower division, many students will use inv ented spelling. Teachers should encourage creativity at this stage, and not be overly fussy about correct spe lling, punctuation, grammar and handwriting. (See CS 41). By the time students reach Standard 1 they sho uld spell most words conventionally. Stu dents who struggle to write because they are ove rwhelmed by the creative process will benefit from hig h levels of teacher support and the careful str ucturing of writing activities. A ssessment It is important to balance assessment of or iginality and creativity with assessment of w riting mechanics. Comments and corrections Internet Resources m ade on written work should help students A U.K. site, www.standards.dfes.gov.uk, known understand, not demotivate them. as “The Standards Site” has many detailed resources for teaching literacy. Visit the site and type “developing writing” in the search box. 113 W Sample Lesson Objective 34.2 After discussing a picture, students will write some original words or sentences L earning Outcomes about it, using invented spelling where appropriate. I nfant 1 34.1 Illustrate a sentence or short story with a picture and add a caption made up of one or two letters or short words. Sample Teaching Strategies I nfant 2 Writing about Texts and Pictures: Integrate 34.2 Compose several original writing into a series of activities based on a sentences based on a picture. text used throughout the week. If writing is 3 4.3 Illustrate a story with a picture based on a picture, discuss it before the and write a caption using real students write. Encourage students to invent or invented spelling. things about the people and objects in the texts and pictures. Oral Story Composition: Students tell and re- Standard 1 tell their stories orally before they write. 3 4.4 Compose an original story, of Key Phrases: Display story phrases, such as at least five sentences, based “Once upon a time,” and other key on a picture, another story or vocabulary. personal experience, and Celebrating Writing: Display and celebrate illustrate it with a picture. completed stories the students have written. 3 4.5 Rewrite a familiar story using original words. Sample Student Activities Shared Writing: Students can compose their stories working alongside an adult or another student. The teacher does not just act as a scribe, instead, he/she helps the student explore ideas and decide what to write next. Whole Class Writing: Using shop paper, the Linkages teacher acts as a scribe and as a guide as the CS10(S) Narrate real and fictional events students jointly discuss and create a story. Puppets and Toys: Students tell a story using CS23(R) Display word power puppets and toys orally, before writing/drawing CS28(R) Interpret stories about it. CS29(R) Relate personally to stories Story Circle: Start a story with an interesting sentence. Ask each student in turn to contribute CS38(W) Plan and edit writing the next sentence. CS45(W) Incorporate stylistic devices in original writing 114 The Planning Guide 35 Write Poetry General Comments Learning outcomes for this content standard, CS1 Content Standard 35 Identify and Distinguish between Sounds, CS14 Recite Write Poetry Poetry and CS30 Read and Relate to Poetry, should be taught at the same time. Since young students frequently encounter poetry, in Compose poetry, the form of nursery rhymes and songs, they are likely to be interested in trying to create their own poems. demonstrating an understanding of rhyme, If lower division students are to write poetry, they must have models to work from. Thus, before asking metre, alliteration, and stu dents to write poetry, expose them to rhymes other devices. similar to the ones you wish them to create. Assessment Assessment of spoken and written rhymes and poem that the students have created can evaluate both the use of poetic forms, for example, correct rhymes, and the originality of the ideas. Internet Resources writenet, www.twc.org hosts a discussion forum where teachers of writing post articles and lesson ideas. For more lesson ideas, try: http://www.poetryclass.net/kslink1.htm For poems try www.poemhunter.com 115 W Sample Lesson Objective 35.3 After listening to and discussing an extract from the poem, “The Adventures of Isabel,” students will write a four line poem of their L earning Outcomes own. I nfant 1 N o learning outcomes relate to Infant 1 for this content standard. Sample Teaching Strategies Infant 2 35.1 List sets of rhyming words. Use a poem to stimulate students to write their own poem: 3 5.2 Compose simple rhyming (1) Read a poem to the class. couplets. (2) Ask the students for their first ideas about it. (3) Read it again (and again), and ask questions to Standard 1 help the students understand the meaning and notice key features (vocabulary, rhyme, etc). 3 5.3 Compose short poems that (4) Further discuss the poem’s theme. rhyme. (5) Tell the students it is now time for them to write their own poems on the same theme. (6) As the students write, help them by suggesting words or ideas. (7) Encourage students to illustrate their completed poems and mount them for classroom display. Sample Student Activities Before asking students to write completely original rhymes, use the activities listed below. Rhyming Class Names: Dave the brave, Leroy the boy, Indira the clearer (etc) Rhyming I Spy: “I spy with my little eye something that rhymes with . . . “ Animal Rhymes: A dog on a log, a spider inside her, an alligator in a potato, a fox in a box, a fish in a dish, a parrot eating a carrot Word Substitution: Students change the words of lines Linkages from their favourite nursery rhymes (Humpty Dumpty CS1(L) Identify and distinguish sat on a ball) between sounds Rhyming Game (groups): The group that comes up CS5(L) Respond to spoken texts with the most words that rhyme with “gold” wins a CS14(S) Recite poetry point. Poetry Day: Students read their own poems to an CS25(R) Read aloud invited audience, for example parents or another class. CS30(R) Read and relate to poetry 116 The Planning Guide 36 Write Letters General Comments As with the other content standards related to writing, invented spelling should be accepted and encouraged as part of the students’ literacy development. Content Standard 36 In the lower division, the content of letters is Write Letters more important than the structure. However, students should learn to start a letter with a greeting and end it with their own name. Compose, with appropriate structure and language, letters for a range of social and Assessment professional purposes. Assessment should focus on the effectiveness of the communication, that is, whether the intended message is successfully conveyed. Aspects of form can be considered secondary. Internet Resources www.letterwritingguide.com 117 W L earning Outcomes Sample Lesson Objective I nfant 1 Students will create a Christmas card with a N o learning outcomes relate to Infant suitable picture and a short written message. 1 for this content standard. However, I nfant 1 students should still get the o pportunity to make and send C hristmas cards. . I nfant 2 3 6.1 Create a birthday or Christmas Sample Teaching Strategies card with an original message. Model Letter Writing: As a whole class activity, using shop paper, model how to write a letter. S tandard 1 Letter to the Class: Write a letter to the class, for 3 6.2 Create greeting cards for a example about a trip, read it to them, and display variety of purposes, for it on the notice board. example get well, Memos: Ask students to carry short notes and congratulations, birthdays and memos to teachers in other classrooms. anniversaries. 36.3 Write a short letter to a friend to invite them to an event, to accept and invitation or to express thanks. Sample Student Activities Play: Integrate pretending to write letters into role plays and literacy centres to help students understand their purpose. Thus, students could pretend to write an invitation to a party during a role play. Making Cards: Most young students like to make greetings cards to give to their friends and family. Time should be spent decorating the cards and thinking about what to write or draw for the message. Mail Box: Before Christmas, set up a class mail- box so students can post cards to their friends. Linkages CS6(L) Respond to visual images CS38(W) Plan and edit written work CS39(W) Present written work appropriately CS40(W) Write clearly and legibly CS41(W) Spell words appropriately 118 The Planning Guide 37 Write Non-Fiction Ge neral Comments Tra ditionally, Language Arts at the lower division has foc used on reading and writing fictional narratives. Ho wever, in the other subjects, students need to read Content Standard 37 and write non-fiction. Non-fiction texts are different Write Non-Fiction fro m narratives in structure, word choice, lay-out, pur pose and style. For this reason, the early int roduction of students to the reading and writing of non -fiction is crucial if they are to succeed in all their Write essays, journals, sub jects in the higher grades. reports and other texts to The focus of non-fiction writing should be on originality, instruct, inform, record, rat her than copying and penmanship.. summarise, evaluate, discuss and persuade. As sessment St udents should progress from one or two wo rd texts, using invented spelling, in Infant I, to sentence and paragraph length texts, wi th increasing use of conventional spelling, in St andard 1 Internet Resources www.readwritething.org has a link to lesson ideas for teachers. 119 Sample Lesson Objective 37.9 During journal time, students will write several original sentences in neat, legible W handwriting. Le a r n ing Outcomes Sample Teaching Strategies In fant 1 Themes: To motivate students, ensure that they 37 .1 Label simple diagrams, for example have an interest in the topic they are writing of parts of the body. about and a purpose for writing. This can often 37.2 Write simple, one or two word be achieved by making a writing activity the informational texts such as signs culmination of a week’s work on a text, or series and directions. of texts, on a theme. Thus, if the theme is families, the students will discuss and read about families, and learn vocabulary words before they In fant 2 start to write. Asking students to write on an 37.3 Write short lists for a specified unfamiliar topic without such preparation is purpose, for example, a shopping unlikely to be effective. (See CS38) list. Pre-writing: Use Pre-writing activities such as activating background knowledge and discussion 37 .4 Write a few words or a sentence of the topic, vocabulary teaching, and practical describing a recent experience. activities. 37 .5 Compose several original sentences Build on students’ experiences of non-fiction describing a familiar person. writing to guide them 37.6 Write several sentences on one idea, During Writing: Correct students’ errors as they picture or topic, using invented write. spelling where necessary. Provide a structure for writing, for example, by providing a diagram for students to write words on. St andard 1 Post writing: Display completed written work in 37.7 Write a short non-fiction text, the classroom. presenting ideas in a logical, sequential order. 37 .8 Keep a daily record (journal) of Sample Student Activities events. Journals: Daily recording of events and thoughts 37 .9 Write a paragraph describing a in journals can begin in Infant 1 with the drawing recent experience. of pictures and the writing of words and letters. 37 .10 Write a paragraph describing By Standard 1, students should be writing several interests. sentences for each entry. Play: can be a powerful tool for introducing students to non-fiction writing. Literacy centres based around a theme, for example shop, post Linkages office, health clinic, or police station, can give CS6(V) Comprehend and interpret visual students opportunities to pretend (or actually) to images complete lists, forms, bills, records, or reports. CS9(S) Express opinions and communicate Making Booklets: Use typing sheets tied between ideas. pieces of card from old boxes to make individual CS10(S) Narrate real and fictional events student booklets. From time to time, ask CS31(R) Comprehend non-fiction texts students to draw and write about their recent activities in their booklets, (see learning outcome CS32(R) Research from non-fiction texts 39.4). CS38(W) Plan and edit written work Signs and Decorations: Creating classroom signs CS39(W) Present written work appropriately and decorations give a writing activity a real purpose. CS41(W) Spell words appropriately 120 The Planning Guide 38 Plan and Edit Writing G eneral Comments A s with the other content standards related to writing, in vented spelling should be accepted and encouraged a s part of the students’ literacy development. A s they progress through primary schools, students s hould learn to use the writing process: that is to plan, d raft, edit, revise, present and evaluate their own Content Standard 38 w riting. The development of all these skills should Plan and Edit Writing b egin in lower division. All students can be encouraged to revisit a piece of written work to improve it and to p repare it for display. Lower division students can begin to plan their work by discussing their ideas for Plan writing by selecting w riting with their teacher and their peers. topics, considering It is important to remember that revising a piece of purpose and audience, w riting is just as much about improving the ideas as organizing thoughts, c orrecting the spelling, punctuation and grammar. displaying and outlining information; and edit writing at word, sentence and text levels. As sessment Wr iting Portfolios: Teachers should build up a col lection of a student’s writing of a variety of gen res: stories, letters, non-fiction texts and poe ms. This will allow the teacher to monitor the dev elopment of the student’s writing over time. Internet Resources Many web-sites give advice about the writing process. For example: www.angelfire.com/wi/writingprocess 121 W Sample Lesson Objective 38. In small groups, students discuss a picture and together write a sentence about it. Learning Outcomes I nfant 1 N o learning outcomes relate to Infant 1 for this content standard. In fant 2 3 8.1 Discuss what they intend to write, with a teacher and/or Sample Teaching Strategies peer, before writing it. Brainstorming: All students need to be given the opportunity to contribute to class brainstorms. S tandard 1 Help at the point of writing: Helping students to 3 8.2 Generate ideas relevant to a correct their work as they write it is much more topic by brainstorming. effective correcting it afterwards. Peer editing: Standard 1 students should be able to edit each other’s work in pairs or small groups. However, this type of activity requires considerable teacher support. Sample Student Activities Shared Writing: Students compose their writing working alongside an adult or another student. The teacher does not just act as a scribe, instead, he/she helps the student explore ideas and decide what to write next. Collective composition: With the teacher acting as a scribe, the class create a collective story on a given theme. Time should be given for the students to explore ideas and discuss which, of several alternatives they prefer. Web Planning: Students can create a web of Linkages ideas, in groups or as a whole class. This content standard links to all Story Maps: Students can create story outlines in content standards from CS34 to CS45. groups or as a whole class. 122 The Planning Guide 3 9 Present Written Work Appropriately G eneral Comments The lay-out and appearance of a written text constitute its form. Each genre of writing has its own form which is part of the message. For example, warning signs tend to be large, bold and capitalized, children’s books tend to have pictures, newspapers have headlines, Content Standard 39 letters have greetings, and so on. Present Written Work Academic work, even at the lower division level, also Appropriately has its own form. The reader expects titles to be underlined, margins to be present but not obtrusive, etc. If the correct form is not used, the reader’s attention is drawn away from the message and Neatly present written communication is less effective. work according to established norms and As students progress through lower division, they should become increasingly aware of, and able to conventions. reproduce, the appropriate form for a variety of written texts. As sessment Cr eate a check-list of items of form that you want th e students to apply, for example (a) heading (b ) date (c) underlining heading and date (d) m argins. This checklist can be displayed in the cla ss, in visual form, and referred to as you re view students’ work. Resources Writer’s guides, such as Diana Hacker’s A Writer’s Reference (Bedford) are invaluable sources of advice about document form. See: www.dianahacker.com 123 Sample Lesson Objective After completing the first draft of a story, W students will re-write it in “best form”, paying attention to handwriting and the lay-out of their work. Learning Outcomes I nfant 1 3 9.1 Head work with items copied from a worksheet or the board. Sample Teaching Strategies I nfant 2 Explicitly teach the rules for setting out written work 3 9.2 Develop a sense of pride in that you expect students to follow. Support this presenting neat and attractive with display charts and large print model texts. written work. 39.3 Underline heading and rule off As the students write for other purposes, monitor their presentation and have them correct or rewrite work. work if it does not meet acceptable standards. 3 9.4 Create a simple picture book with original words or However, some students find neat presentation very sentences and having the difficult. The desire of these students to write appearance of a book, for should not be crushed by a demotivating focus on example with a front cover, form. title, and the author's name. S tandard 1 3 9.5 Use margins appropriately. 3 9.6 Head papers in a manner prescribed by the teacher, for example by putting their name, class, the date and the title of the work being completed. 39.7 Indent paragraphs. Sample Student Activities Work on presentation should be integrated with other writing activities. Linkages This content standard links to all content standards from CS34 to CS45. 124 The Planning Guide 40 Write Clearly and Legibly Gene ral Comments The a bility to write clearly and legibly should develop over time as students write stories, letters, poems and non-f iction texts. Thus, the skills outlined in the learn ing outcomes are meant as guidelines for teachers as th ey monitor students’ progress in penmanship. In Content Standard 40 other words, it is not intended for teachers to conduct explic Write Clearly and it lessons on each of the specified skills Legibly Traci ng letters using dots and practicing writing letters freeh and are valid activities, especially when they occur as pa rt of a planned phonics programme, (CS1). Form letters, words, and However, the amount of classroom time used for such activi ties should be limited to a few minutes a day. longer texts Exces sive emphasis on perfect letter formation at the recognizably, neatly, and lower division level is likely to detract from more impo rtant literacy development activities. It is also accurately in both likely to demotivate students and may actually harm cursive and print. the d evelopment of fine-motor muscle control. In or der to facilitate the learning of cursive writing in Infan t 2 and Standard 1, Infant 1 students should learn letter forms that have “tails”. A ssessment T eachers should monitor students’ gradual d evelopment of handwriting skills over time. By th e end of Infant 1, students should be able to fo rm all the 26 letters of the alphabet. A lso see CS20 Apply Phonics Knowledge Internet Resources There are many general sites that offer advice to parents on aspects such as penmanship. For example: http://www.handwritinghelpforkids.com 125 Sample Lesson Objective Infant 1 40.5 After learning the letter d (phonics), W students will trace it four times in their Fast Phonics workbooks. Sample Teaching Strategies Le arning Outcomes Pencil Hold: Infant 1 students should use a correct In fant 1 pencil hold. If they do not, early intervention is 40 .1 Demonstrate correct technique for necessary. They should also develop a clear holding a pencil. preference for either their right or left hand. Do not force natural left-handers to write with their 40.2 Develop motor skills through right hand. colouring, tracing and scribbling. Posture: Correct seating position and posture are 40 .3 Write slants, curves and letter-like important. Students should be able to sit with shapes free-hand. their feet flat on the floor as they write. 40 .4 Write letters on a page from left to Progressive Development: Usually, as students right and top to bottom. begin school, their attempts at writing letters are over-sized and poorly formed. This is 40.5 Form the 26 upper and lower-case developmentally normal. Over the course of letters of the alphabet and numbers Infant 1, writing should become progressively by tracing dots on a page. more controlled. 40 .6 Distinguish in writing between easily Penmanship Practice: Practice that involves confused letters, for example copying and tracing letters should be limited to a b,d,p,q. few minutes at a time. 40 .7 Write on a line provided in a notebook. 40.8 Write with correct letter size and space using guidelines. Sample Student Activities 40 .9 Form letters with the "tails" Activities such as painting, pasting paper, using play necessary for cursive writing. dough and constructing simple puzzles can all help 40 .10 Colour an outline shape while develop the fine motor skills necessary for writing. keeping between the lines. Colouring In: If students begin school with little or no Infant 2 & Standard 1 experience of writing, begin by helping them colour Se e next section within lines, paste objects and draw shapes that look like circles and crosses. They can also spend time scribbling. Connect the Dots: Connecting dots to make a picture helps students learn to control a pencil. Letter Tracing: Tracing dots, tracing letters in sand or on the desk and similar activities should form part of the phonics programme. Linkages Guide Lines: Once students can trace letters and they begin to form them free-hand, guiding lines will help CS20(R) Apply phonics knowledge them size letters appropriately. My Alphabet Book: An alphabet book has one page for each letter. On each page, the teacher should write the This content standard also links to all lower case and capital letter for the student to copy. The content standards from CS34 to CS45. students should also decorate the page and draw or paste pictures of items beginning with the letter. 126 The Planning Guide 40 Write Clearly and Legibly G eneral Comments T he ability to write clearly and legibly should continue t o develop throughout Infant 2 and Standard 1. Short, r egular periods of handwriting practice can be helpful, b ut students also need many opportunities to complete Content Standard 40 m eaningful writing tasks such as writing stories, letters, p oems and non-fiction texts. Thus, the skills outlined in Write Clearly and t he learning outcomes are meant as guidelines for Legibly t eachers as they monitor students’ progress in p enmanship. S tudents should begin to use cursive forms, especially Form letters, words, and o f lower case letters in Infant 2, so that by the end of longer texts S tandard 1, their handwriting is recognizably “joined”. T his process will be easier if, in Infant 1, students have recognizably, neatly, and b een taught to add “tails” to their print letters. accurately in both T he learning outcomes refer to cursive writing for lower cursive and print. c ase letters. The use of cursive capital letters is b ecoming increasingly rare and does not need to be e mphasized. A ssessment B y the end of Standard 1, students should, w ithout tracing, form similar letters of the same h eight, have appropriate sized ascending and d escending strokes, leave appropriate spaces b etween words and between lines. Letters should a lso have a uniform slant. Internet Resources http://teachers.dadeschools.net/mmarcus/cursive_h ints.htm http://www.designastudy.com/teaching/tips- 1198.html 127 Infant 2 and Standard 1 W Sample Lesson Objective Learning Outcomes 40.14 Students will rewrite their stories in Infant 1 “best” form using cursive writing. See previous section Infant 2 40.11 Form the 26 upper and lower-case letters of the alphabet and numbers without tracing. Sample Teaching Strategies 40.12 Legibly copy print sentences from the board. Constant Monitoring: When students are 40.13 Join some letters to others, writing composition, monitor their cursively, for example, c, a, handwriting but be careful not to make o, l achieving handwriting perfection the main purpose of the activity. It is better to allow students to concentrate on composition first Standard 1 and have them write a “best copy” later. 40.14 Join most letters to form cursive writing. 40.15 Develop a neat, legible handwriting. Sample Student Activities Handwriting practice: In lessons, a few minutes can be spent copying letters, words and sentences off a board, chart or worksheet. However, these activities should not be so extended as to be tedious. Linkages CS20(R) Apply phonics knowledge This content standard also links to all content standards from CS34 to CS45. 128 The Planning Guide 41 Spell Words Appropriately General Comments Learning to spell cannot be done effectively through the memorization of words; there are too many words for any person to be able to memorize them all. Instead, Content Standard 41 learning to spell occurs gradually, over time, as a Spell Words student makes connections between the sound system Appropriately and the writing system of the language. Students can use invented spelling to meet the learning outcomes for all content standards from CS34 to CS45. Spell words in “It is important for parents and teachers to understand accordance with that invented spelling is not in conflict with correct accepted conventions. spelling . . . it plays an important role in helping children learn how to write. When children use invented spelling, they are exercising their growing knowledge of phonemes, the letters of the alphabet, and their confidence in the alphabetic principle. A child's 'iz' for the conventional 'is' can be celebrated as quite a breakthrough! It is the kind of error that shows you that the child is thinking independently and quite analytically about the sounds of words and the logic of spelling." (Burns, Griffin and Snow (1999) p. 102)” Asse ssment Over time, students’ spelling patterns should becom e more conventional. Beginning spellers may use only consonants to represent sounds but by In fant 2 vowels should also be represented. It is n ot necessary to use traditional tests of memorized spelling to assess this content standard. Resources For an explanation of invented spelling, see: http://www.readingrockets.org/articles/267 (readingrockets.org is linked to U.S. public service T.V. and radio.) For more detailed analysis, see the work of Linnea C. Ehri. 129 Sample Lesson Objective After discussing a picture, students will write W some original words or sentences about it, using invented spelling where appropriate. Learning Outcomes Sample Teaching Strategies Infant 1 41.1 Include letter like forms or During lower division, students should be allowed single letters when to try to work out the spellings based on their communicating through knowledge of the way words can be divided up drawing. into sounds (CS1) that are represented by letters 41.2 Spell words using one or two (CS20). These early attempts at spelling should feature letters, for example, be phonetically logical, but few will be first and last letters only. conventionally accurate. Infant 2 Ask the student to read their writing to you and orally coach them on improving their spelling, 41.3 Spell words phonetically, so that especially when all the sounds in a word are not all the sounds are represented logically represented. by a least one letter. 41.4 Write captions for their own Avoid crossing out or circling invented spelling drawings, using invented words. Instead, many teachers like to write the spelling where necessary. conventional spelling of a word above or below . the student’s invented spelling. Standard 1 41.5 Appropriately form plurals by adding -es and by changing y/ey to ies in original writing 41.6 Spell common, irregularly spelt Sample Student Activities words, for example days of the week, numbers and question Activities from all the other content standards for words correctly. writing can be used. Throughout Standard 1, teachers Picture response: Students write under a picture; should continue to monitor their if they don’t know the spelling they can try to students’ progress towards the spell words as they sound. greater use of conventional spelling. Missing Letter: Students fill in the missing letter of a word. This activity can be linked to students’ identification of beginning, medial and ending Linkages letters and sounds. CS1(L) Identify and distinguish Matching: Students match words to pictures. between sounds. This can be especially useful with “tricky” words. CS20(R) Apply phonics knowledge Fishing for Words: Students select the correct CS22(R) Recognize words by sight word from a word wall. My words: Students make collections of their All content standards from CS34 to CS45 favourite words. These can be kept in a box or and any other areas that involve writing. they can make their own dictionaries. 130 The Planning Guide 42 Use Capital Letters Appropriately General Comments The formation of both upper and lower case letters Content Standard 42 is covered by CS40. CS41 refers to their use as Use Capital Letters grammatical markers. Appropriately As the begin to write, many students prefer to use capital letters to represent sounds. As their writing develops, they will usually begin to mix lower case Appropriately use capital and capital letters, indiscriminately putting capitals in the middle of words where they do not belong. letters at the beginning This is developmentally expected, and occurs of sentences and direct because they the students are concentrating more on sounds than form. speech, for abbreviations and for the names of Starting with the writing of their own name, students should gradually begin to realize that people, places, dates, capital letters play a grammatical rather than books, titles, institutions, phonological role in writing. This mixing of capital and lower case letters should then gradually historical periods and disappear as students learn more about the events. conventions of print. Some explicit teaching of capital letter rules is useful. However, this should not be done in isolation from the reading and writing of texts. Assessment Students' use of capital letters is best assessed while they write for other purposes. Internet Resources For a comprehensive article on capital letter usage see: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalization 131 W Sample Lesson Objective 42.1 By the end of the lesson, students will have Le arning Outcomes written their own name, beginning it with a capital letter. In fant 1 42.1 Use a capital letter for the beginning of their own name. 42 .2 Differentiate between capital and lower case letters. Sample Teaching Strategies Texts: The teaching of capital letters can be effectively achieved through the use of reading Infant 2 texts. As students read stories, the teacher can 42.3 Avoid inappropriately using point out that certain words begin with capital capital letters in the middle of letters and ask the students if they know why. words and sentences. Rules: Remind students to always use lower case 42 .4 Use capital letters for names letters unless the rules say otherwise. Introduce of people. these rules one at a time with a short piece of 42 .5 Use capital letters for names explicit teaching linked to specific reading texts. of places, days and months. Use display charts and model writing to reinforce the rules. 42.6 Use capital letters at the Word classes: Link the rules to specific classes of beginning of sentences. words as students learn them. For example, 42 .7 Use capital letter for the word when students learn the days of the week, tell “I”. them to use capital letters. Sentence concept: The concept of a sentence is S tandard 1 one that many young children find difficult to 4 2.8 Use capital letters for the understand. Teaching them an abstract definition names of streets, buildings is unlikely to help; instead, point out the features and other geographical of a sentence during reading sessions. Grammar-at-the-point-of-writing: Teachers can features. prompt students to correct their own writing as they do it in the classroom. Throughout Standard 1, teachers should monitor the students’ continued achievement of 42.1 to 42.7 Linkages Sample Student Activities CS1(L) Identify and distinguish between Word Collections: Students can make collections of words that require capital sounds letters. CS19(S) Use speech prosody and gesture Editing: Students can add capital CS20(R) Apply phonics knowledge letters to sentences that require them. CS21(R) Recognize words by sight Hunt the Letter: Students can hunt for capital letters in stories and other CS23(R) Display word power texts. CS34(W) Write stories CS38(W) Plan and edit writing CS39W) Present written work appropriately CS40(W) Write clearly and legibly CS43(W) Use punctuation appropriately 132 The Planning Guide 43 Use Punctuation Appropriately Gene ral Comments Many lower division students are unable to grasp the conce pts behind abstract punctuation rules. Teaching Content Standard 43 shoul d therefore focus on giving examples of how Use Punctuation punct uation is used. Students should be shown how punct uation adds to or changes the meaning of a Appropriately sente nce in order to help them grasp that punctuation marks are an essential tool for transmitting exact mean ing. In other words, teaching that helps students under stand punctuation is likely to be more effective Appropriately use full than t eaching that concentrates on rules, procedures and m emorization. stops, question, exclamation and An ef fective way of helping students understand punct uation is to monitor their in-class writing and quotation marks, discus s and correct their errors as they occur. Features commas, semi-colons of pun ctuation should also be pointed out during shared readin g. and colons. Assessment Assessment should focus on the use of punctuation in original writing. Tests containing isolated items are usually an ineffective way of evaluating students’ ability to use punctuation in original writing. Internet Resources Teaching Young Children to Use Punctuation with Precision and Purpose by Janet Angelillo (Scholastics) is downloadable from: http://www.noycefdn.org/literacy/documents/Handout- Punctuation09-18-04.pdf An excellent general book on punctuation is Eats Shoots and Leaves by Lynne Truss (Gotham Pubs. 2004) 133 Sample Lesson Objective 43.3 While describing a member of their family, W students will use a series of adjectives and correctly place commas between them. Learning Outcomes Sample Teaching Strategies Infant 1 No learning outcomes relate to Infant Model Reading: During read alouds, pay 1 for this content standard. attention to punctuation. If a big book is used, . show the students how punctuation affects the Infant 2 way you read the text. 43.1 Use a full stop at the end of a Discovery: Ask students to circle the full-stops telling sentence. in a story. Then ask them to explain what they notice and what they think a full-stop does. 43.2 Appropriately use question Grammar-at-the-point-of-writing: Teachers can marks. prompt students to add appropriate punctuation to their own writing as they do it in the Standard 1 classroom. 43.3 Appropriately use commas in a series of adjectives or nouns. 43.4 Use an apostrophe in common Sample Student Activities contractions. Hunt the Mark: Students can hunt for punctuation marks in stories and other texts. Note: to achieve 43.3, students need Sorting Sentence Strips: After reading a story, to demonstrate a basic knowledge of students can put sentence strips into two sets, one of this type of comma usage. They do sentences that have a question mark and the other of not need to demonstrate knowledge sentences that have a full-stop. They can then of all the rules and exceptions. discuss the difference between the two sets. Computer Games: There are several free sites that The common contractions in 43.4 offer interactive games to teach punctuation. One on include those relating to the verbs apostrophes is be, have and do, and the contraction http://www.bbc.co.uk/skillswise/words/grammar/pun of would and will. ctuation/apostrophes/index.shtml Contraction Partners: Students are given a card. Some cards have a contraction and some have a word written out in full. Students have to find their partner. Contractions Song: Make up simple songs about Linkages contractions - “I’m means I am / She’s means she is/ CS17(S) Use correct grammatical structures You’re means you are/ and He’s means he is”. in speech CS19(S) Use speech prosody and gesture CS21(R) Recognize words by sight CS23(R) Display word power CS25(R) Read Aloud CS34(W) Write stories CS38(W) Plan and edit writing CS39W) Present written work appropriately CS42(W) Use capital letters appropriately CS45(W) Incorporate stylistic devices in original writing. 134 The Planning Guide 4 4 Apply Correct Grammatical Forms in Writing General Comments All children learn grammar naturally as they learn to speak and the development of oral language skills is an important part of developing grammar for writing. However, in Belize, the grammar that many students first learn is that of Kriol. If students are to develop a Content Standard 44 sense of standard English grammar, they need to hear Apply Correct it consistently spoken by the teacher and they need to encounter it frequently in books. Grammatical Forms in Writing This content standard interprets “grammar” as the rules governing the way words are connected together to form sentences. The primary aim of teaching Combine words into grammar is to improve students’ writing. This content correctly structured standard, therefore, stresses the application of grammar rules, not their memorization, nor the sentences using identification and definition of parts of speech. In appropriate word reality, there is little benefit to teaching lower division students grammatical definitions since their thought endings, word order and processes are unlikely to be sufficiently developed for other rules of language. such abstract concepts to be understood. However, the identification of parts of speech during reading is covered by CS22: Use Context Clues. Assessment Assessment of the students’ understanding and use of grammatical structures should be based on their original writing rather than on the results of separate grammar tests. Internet Resources There are many sites designed to help adults improve their own grammar, for example, http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/ 135 Sample Lesson Objective W 42.3 Students will write a short narrative paragraph, correctly using noun-verb-noun sentence structures. Learning Outcomes Sample Teaching Strategies In fant 1 N o learning outcomes relate to Infant 1 for Modeling: Teachers should endeavour to model th is learning outcome. grammatically accurate standard written and spoken English. In fant 2 Grammar-at-the-Point–of-Writing: The key to 44 .1 Use appropriate word order for simple good grammar instruction is to teach it as the subject-verb-object sentences in students write original work. Although marking original writing and correcting are important, students are more likely to understand and internalize a grammar 44 .2 Form the plural of nouns by adding -s. rule if it is explained to them as they try to write 44.3 Correctly use the articles a and an in a communicative sentence. original writing. Verb Tenses: By Standard 1, students should be using past tense forms when writing original 44 .4 Appropriately substitute the nouns with stories. the pronoun "it" and "them" in original Explicit Teaching: The explicit teaching of rules writing. may be essential; however, it is better to for this teaching to occur in short chunks of a few Standard 1 minutes at a time. Comparative Analysis: Teachers can help 44 .5 Appropriately use simple present and students understand that Kriol and standard simple past forms of the verbs be, do, English have different grammars by comparing and have in original writing. sentences from the two languages. 44 .6 Construct simple noun-verb-noun sentences correctly in original writing Note: This Learning Outcomes relate to standard English. Sample Student Activities English or Kriol Game: The teacher says a sentence. The students have to identify if it Linkages is in English or Kriol. CS17(S) Use correct grammatical structures in speech Reading: The more students read, the more CS18(S) Use appropriate styles and registers in speech they will encounter grammatically correct CS19(S) Use speech prosody and gesture sentences. CS22(R) Use Context Clues Picture Response: Students write the single or plural form of nouns in response to a CS34(W) Write stories picture prompt. This could be linked with CS36(W) Write letters numbers: one apples, three apples, etc. CS37(W) Write non-fiction Jumbled Sentences: Students put word cards in a logical order to make a sentence. CS38(W) Plan and edit writing CS45(W) Incorporate stylistic devices in original writing. 136 The Planning Guide 45 Incorporate Stylistic Devices in Original Writing General Comments Content Standard 45 Incorporate Stylistic The overall aim of language arts is to help students communicate effectively and they need to learn to use Devices in Original stylistic devices both to entertain and to convey Writing meaning more exactly and powerfully. The learning outcomes for lower division for CS45 relate to the use of adjectives to modify nouns. Students Deploy and vary words, achieve these outcomes by using adjectives and nouns phrases and sentence appropriately in original sentences. The identification of nouns and adjectives is covered by CS22. types for effect, including similes, metaphors and This content standard is strongly linked to those that necessitate original writing by the students, particularly proverbs. CS34 to CS38. As sessment St udents should be evaluated on their ability to us e adjectives to modify nouns in original se ntences. Isolated grammar exercises in which stu dents identify and circle nouns and adjectives wo uld not assess this skill. Instead, teachers sh ould look for examples of appropriate adjective us e as the students write stories, letters and non- fic tion. Internet Resources http://www.english-zone.com, a site aimed at learners of English as a second language, has a clearly written page explaining adjectives and their use. 137 W Sample Lesson Objective 45.1 Students will write a sentence about a friend using at least one adjective. Learning Outcomes Infant 1 Sample Teaching Strategies Modeling: Teachers should model, in their own N o learning outcomes relate to Infant speech and writing, the type of language they 1 for this content standard want students to learn and use. Original Writing: All students, from Infant 1 I nfant 2 upwards, should be given frequent opportunities 4 5.1 Modify a noun with an adjective to create original writing. They can write in in an original sentence. response to pictures and stories, and they can write their own stories, letters and non-fiction S tandard 1 texts. 4 5.2 Modify a noun with two or Draw and Write: Whenever students draw a more adjectives in an original picture, they should be encouraged to write a sentence. caption. Grammar-at-the-Point –of-Writing: As students write, the teacher should encourage them to use adjectives to improve their work. Oral Language Development: Students need to be able to say the target sentences before they can write them. Sample Student Activities Adjective Games: The teacher says a word and the students have to shout out an adjective to describe it. Surprise Bag: Students pick an item from a surprise bag and say and adjective that describes it. Family Drawing: Students draw their family and write adjectives about the people they have drawn. Alternatively, a Linkages photograph may be used as a prompt. CS10(S) Narrate real and fictional events Pictures: Students say and write CS17(S) Use correct grammatical structures in speech sentences with adjectives in response to CS27(R) Comprehend fiction texts pictures. CS30(R) Read and relate to poetry CS31(R) Comprehend non-fiction texts CS34(W) Write stories CS35(W) Write poetry CS36(W) Write letters CS37(W) Write non-fiction CS44(W) Apply correct grammatical forms in writing. 138 The Planning Guide 139 The Planning Guide 140 The Planning Guide Using Curriculum Themes Instruction should be organized into content-based themes: one for each unit of work. Reading texts, writing topics and listening, speaking and viewing activities should be linked to the theme. When planning, teachers should look for topics on which they have access to a large number of fiction and non-fiction texts that can be read by the students. They should then plan for the students to use these as stimuli for reading, writing and other activities. General Themes Teachers can choose any topics for their How the themes should be used. Language Arts themes. They should choose topics that are of interest to the students Language Arts lessons are more meaningful to and for which sufficient resources are students if they listen to, read, speak about and write available. about topics that are of interest to them. Themes from other subject areas can also When planning their units, teachers should select a be used as Language Arts themes, as listed theme from this page or create one of their own, and below. then use texts related to it. Social Studies Themes Science Themes The World: (Landforms & Location; The Earth; The Universe: (Planets, The Earth, The Moon, Weather & Rotation; Resources; Tourism.) The Sun.) Government and Citizenship: (Myself, My Living Things: (Plants, Animals.) Family, My Home; Rules at Home and in the Materials and Substances: (Heat, Matter, Force, Community; Neighbourhood Services.) Sources of Light.) Rights and Responsibilies: (You Have Rights.; Simple Machines: (Force Machines.) You Have Responsibilities.) The Environment: (Natural History, Pollution.) Early Civilization: (The Individual, Family, Housing, Food, Community, Language, Maya HFLE Themes Village Organizations, Folktales; Spirituality & Sexuality and Sexual Health Tradition; Farming; A Community in Africa.) Self and Interpersonal Relationships Society and Culture: (My Country; Ethnic Eating and Fitness Groups – Family Structures, Stories, Language, Managing the Environment Musical Instruments, Brief History, Traditions, etc). Spanish Themes Homes,,Family, Places, Play, Above Us, Entertainment, Environment, Belonging, Sporting, Food, Animal Kingdom, Recreation, Market, Farm, Our Classroom, Shopping, Friends, My Body, Clothing. The Planning Guide 141 Advisory Scope and Sequence Charts The following charts indicate how teachers can plan to cover all the learning outcomes in a given year. These charts, or ones of the teacher’s own devising, should be consulted when annual plans and unit plans are being written. It should be noted that few learning outcomes are designed to be taught just once. The vast majority of learning outcomes will require several lessons to be covered adequately and most, once taught, will need to be revisited at a later date. Most learning outcomes, therefore, will appear in more than one unit. The scope and sequence charts also indicate intensity and frequency for teaching learning outcomes as follows: 1. Every Day or Almost Every Day - These learning outcomes, most of which relate to phonics and reading comprehension, should be addressed as a regular and routine part of teaching. For example, it is recommended that every infant one language arts session include a phonics segment, that every day should include a morning circle type discussion time and that all students should either be read to or engage in silent reading every day. 2. Major Focus of Unit or Month / Regular Activity Each unit should have a number of major focuses, at least one relating to each of the skill areas of listening, speaking, reading and writing, and sometimes also some relating to viewing. Throughout the course of the unit, these items will occur frequently and substantial progress towards mastery of the relevant learning outcomes should occur. However, since language arts skills develop incrementally and since progress often depends upon regular practice, some outcomes may be the major focus of several units. 3. Secondary Focus of Unit or Month / Occasional Activity Some learning outcomes relate to skills that, once they have been initially taught as the major focus of a unit, need further development through continued practice. From time to time, these learning outcomes should be the secondary focus of a unit. Usually, a learning outcome will be a major focus of a unit before it is a secondary focus. 4. Ongoing Development and Monitoring by the Teacher The skills relating to most learning outcomes need to be continually monitored by the teacher after they have initially been taught. Other skills require little or no explicit teaching; instead they are expected to develop “naturally” as the student matures and is exposed to a wider range of experiences in school and in the home. These skills need to be monitored by the teacher in case the expected development does not occur and intervention is required. When a learning outcome is selected for ongoing development and monitoring, it is not usually necessary to include it in written plans. Starting Month Skill CS No. 142 The Planning Guide Scope and Sequence Chart for Infant One KEY Every Day or Almost Every Day Major Focus of Unit or Month / Regular Activity Secondary Focus of Unit or Month / Occasional Activity Ongoing Development and Monitoring by the Teacher Learning Outcome 1.1 L Sept Identify a series of words that begin with the same sound. 1.2 L Sept Listen to rhymes and songs to begin developing a sense of rhyme. 1.3 L Oct Identify a series of words that rhyme. 1.4 L Dec Discriminate between onsets and rimes in speech. 1.5 L Sept Identify and distinguish between the main 42 phonemes used in the English language. 1.6 L Oct Identify, orally, all the individual phonemes in consonant-vowel-consonant and vowel-consonant- vowel words. 1.7 L Sept Blend three phonemes together to make a word. 1.8 L Nov Understand the terms vowel and consonant as they relate to sounds. 2.1 L Jan Follow simple, one and two step, oral directions. 2.2 L Sept State correct answers to literal comprehension questions in response to stories presented orally. 3.1 L May Establish good eye contact with a speaker. 3.2 L May Demonstrate awareness of whether a presenter is telling a story or dealing with a factual topic. 5.1 L Dec Recognize emotions, for example, happy, sad, or angry, of characters in stories presented orally. 6.1 V Sept Understand that visual images contain information. 6.2 V Sept Identify and differentiate shapes, sizes, letters, numbers, patterns (etc.) 6.3 V Oct Connect a visual image to a story text. 7.1 V Oct State whether they like or dislike a picture or whether it makes them feel happy or sad. 8.1 S Oct Ask a teacher or familiar adult questions to obtain information or permission. 8.2 S Sept Follow an agreed procedure for asking and answering questions in class, for example by raising a hand and waiting for the teacher. 8.3 S Sept Answer questions, possibly using sentence fragments and gestures. 9.1 S Nov State likes, dislikes and preferences. 10.1 S Oct Describe a recent event during class "circle time" or to the teacher or familiar adult. 10.2 S Dec Briefly describe objects, animals, and places. 11.1 S Sept Take part in "circle time" activities in which each student contributes an item. 12.1 S Oct Speak in a natural, easy manner with children and adults with whom they are familiar. 13.1 S Oct Individually, act out the meaning of a single word, for example, an action verb S e p t O c t N o v D e c J a n F e b M a r A p r M a y J u n e Starting Month Skill CS No. The Planning Guide 143 Learning Outcome 14.1 S Sept Accompany rhymes and songs with simple actions. 14.2 S Sept Chorally, with the aid of the teacher, recite simple poems with actions. 15.1 S Sept In a teacher led discussion, wait for someone else to finish talking and not interrupt them 16.1 S Sept During speech, clearly and correctly pronounce the main 42 phonemes (language sounds) of standard English. 17.1 S Dec State ideas in complete simple sentences 18.1 S Nov Use appropriate forms for making requests (for example by saying please and thank you) and expressing needs. 19.1 S Feb Speak with voice volume appropriate to the listener and the situation. 20.1 R Sept Recognise and name all letters of the alphabet in upper and lower case 20.2 R Sept Recognise the most common letter-sound relationship for all the letters of the alphabet and for the digraphs ng, ck, ch, sh, th, ai, ee, ie (pie), oa, ue, ou (ouch), ar, er, or, oi, oo (moon and look) 20.3 R Oct Identify the initial sound and the corresponding letter of a spoken word, object or picture. 20.4 R Oct Blend a vowel and a consonant together to read a two letter word, for example, at, it, ma, pa, in, am 20.5 R Oct Blend letters by sound to read regularly spelt Consonant-Vowel-Consonant and Vowel-Consonant- Consonant words. 20.6 R Mar Read words with initial consonant clusters, br-, tr-, bl-, gl-, st-, sn-, and dr-. 20.7 R Jan Sound out most phonetically spelt one and two syllable words that contain short vowel sounds and long vowel sounds spelt using ai/ee/ie/oa/oo/a_e/i_e. 20.8 R Apr Read words ending with the consonant clusters, -nd, -lp, -st, -nk, -sp, and -nt. 20.9 R Nov Understand the terms vowel and consonant as they relate to letters and sounds. 21.1 R Oct Track words on a page while listening to poetry, nursery rhymes and familiar, repetitive stories, being read aloud by another person. 21.2 R Nov Read on sight a range of familiar words, for examples, numbers one to twenty, labels, captions, names of familiar people, days of the week, and approximately fifty high frequency words from books. 22.1 R Feb Identify a noun in a written text.. 22.2 R Mar Identify an action verb in a written text. 22.3 R Mar Identify when a noun in a written text is plural. 22.4 R Apr Identify a pronoun in a written text. 23.1 R Apr Recognize unusual words encountered in nursery rhymes and frequently read stories. 24.1 R Oct Recite the names of letters in correct alphabetical order 25.1 R Nov Read consonant-vowel-consonant and vowel-consonant-consonant words and short sentences containing these words aloud to the teacher. 25.2 R Nov Individually and in chorus, read aloud words which are used on a regular basis, e.g. numbers, days and weather words. 25.3 R Sept Read, or pretend to read to other people, dolls and toys. 25.4 R Sept Track text in the right order, i.e. left to right, top to bottom, page to page. 25.5 R Feb In chorus and along with the teacher, read a familiar short story or poem aloud. 27.1 R Sept Re-enact familiar, simple, stories through role play. 27.2 R Oct Recall, word for word, phrases that are repeated several times in a simple story. S e p t O c t N o v D e c J a n F e b M a r A p r M a y J u n e Starting Month Skill CS No. 144 The Planning Guide Learning Outcome 27.3 R Mar Recount, re-enact with toys, or sequence using pictures, the main events of a familiar nursery rhymes and stories 28.1 R Dec Discuss the causes of events in simple stories. 28.2 R Dec Predict the next section of a story with a repetitive, predictable pattern. 29.1 R Sept Respond emotionally to stories and experience satisfaction, enjoyment, sadness, etc 29.2 R Sept State whether they like or dislike a story. 30.1 R June Connect the text of a poem to accompanying pictures. 31.1 R Feb Read and follow a simple, single step instruction. 31.2 R Dec Read simple, highly pictorial, non-fiction texts on familiar themes of interest. 33.1 W May Understand the difference between fact and fantasy. 34.1 W Nov Illustrate a sentence or short story with a picture and add a caption made up of one or two letters or short words. 37.1 W Jan Label simple diagrams, for example of parts of the body. 37.2 W Feb Write simple, one or two word informational texts such as signs and directions. 39.1 W Sept Head work with items copied from a worksheet or the board. 40.1 W Sept Demonstrate correct technique for holding a pencil 40.2 W Sept Develop motor skills through colouring, tracing and scribbling 40.3 W Oct Write slants, curves and letter-like shapes free-hand. 40.4 W Sept Write letters on a page from left to right and top to bottom. 40.5 W Sept Form the 26 upper and lower-case letters of the alphabet and numbers by tracing dots on a page 40.6 R June Distinguish in writing between easily confused letters, for example b ,d, p, q. 40.7 W Oct Write on a line provided in a notebook. 40.8 W Oct Write with correct letter size and space using guidelines. 40.9 W Sept Form letters with the "tails" necessary for cursive writing. 40.10 W Sept Colour an outline shape while keeping between the lines. 41.1 W Sept Include letter like forms or single letters when communicating through drawing. 41.2 W Dec Spell words using one or two feature letters, for example, first and last letters only. 42.1 W Sept Differentiate between capital and lower case letters S e p t O c t N o v D e c J a n F e b M a r A p r M a y J u n e June May Apr Mar Feb Jan Dec Nov Oct Sept Starting Month Skill CS No. The Planning Guide 145 Scope and Sequence Chart for Infant Two KEY Every Day or Almost Every Day Major Focus of Unit or Month / Regular Activity Secondary Focus of Unit or Month / Occasional Activity Ongoing Development and Monitoring by the Teacher Learning Outcome 1.9 L Mar Generate a new rhyme from a prompt word. 1.10 L Nov Divide two syllable words into syllables and clap the syllables of a short sentence. 2.3 L Nov Perform a simple procedure after listening to a description of it. 2.4 L Oct Recall one or two important points after listening to a short spoken text. 2.5 L Sept Identify main characters and events in stories presented orally. 3.3 L Apr Identify the mood and tone of speech 3.4 L Mar Sit quietly and be attentive to a presenter. 4.1 L Sept Demonstrate courteous listening behaviours in small group situations. 5.2 L Nov Answer simple questions about their feelings in response to stories and poetry presented orally 5.3 L Sept Predict outcomes of familiar, repetitive stories presented orally. 5.4 L Oct Retell/dramatize parts of stories heard. 6.4 V Sept Follow instructions given by the means of gestures, symbols and pictures. 6.5 L Jan Select or draw a series of pictures to retell a story 7.2 V Nov Express a point of view based on viewing a picture. 8.4 S Jan Ask a partner simple questions to acquire information using who, what, when, where, and how. 8.5 S Jan Ask a partner questions about a topic of interest. 8.15 S Sept Give appropriate spoken responses to greetings, instructions and requests. 9.2 S Sept Use complete sentences of five or more words to express ideas, preferences and needs. 10.3 S Oct Describe a picture using complete sentences. 10.4 S Dec Calmly describe a recently witnessed event. 11.2 S Sept Give simple reports about current weather conditions. 12.2 S Mar Demonstrate feelings of self-worth and express ideas confidently. 12.3 S Apr Express humour and other appropriate feelings 13.2 S Apr Role play simple situations with at least one other person, for example "at school", "at the store," etc. 14.3 S Mar Play with rhyme by changing familiar poems and nursery rhymes. June May Apr Mar Feb Jan Dec Nov Oct Sept Starting Month Skill CS No. 146 The Planning Guide Learning Outcome 14.4 S Dec In a group, memorize a short poem for public performance, e.g. to a group of parents or at the Festival of Arts. 15.2 S Sept In small group or class discussion wait for someone else to finish talking and not interrupt them. 17.2 R Nov Form the plural of most nouns correctly while speaking standard English 20.10 R Oct Read words containing vowel digraphs ea (seat), a_e (cake) ay (day), ew (flew), oy (boy), ow (cow & low), 20.11 R Apr Note that most vowel sounds, especially the long vowel sounds (ai, ee, ie, oa, ue), have a range of alternative spellings and apply this knowledge when decoding unfamiliar words. 20.12 R Oct Sound out two syllable words that are spelt using conventional consonant, "short" vowel and commonly occurring "long" vowel letter representations 20.13 R Jan Read words ending in -ss -ck -ff -ll 20.14 R Jan Discriminate between words beginning with hard/soft c and g 20.15 R Feb Recognize words ending with common spelling patterns, e.g. -old, -ing, -op, -end, -and. 21.3 R Mar Read on sight and understand the meaning of words containing the endings -s (plural), -ing (continuous tense), and -ed (past tense) 21.4 R Sept Read on sight approximately one hundred high frequency words including numbers, seasons, months of the year, common colour words and the name of the school. 22.5 R Oct Identify, and explain the purposes of, full stops and question marks in written texts. 22.6 R Nov Identify a proper noun in a written text. 22.7 R Feb Identify, and explain the purpose of, an adjective in a written text. 22.8 R Mar Use visual images to predict the meaning of unfamiliar words. 22.9 R Mar Identify compound words in a written text. 23.2 R Sept Show interest in learning about new words encountered in reading. 23.3 R Feb Read and understand common compound words and split them into their component parts, e.g. himself, handbag, teaspoon. 23.4 R Jan Identify the opposites of familiar words. 24.2 R Apr Place words that begin with different letters in correct alphabetical order. 24.3 R Apr With help, find information in simple dictionaries with illustrations. 25.3 R Nov Understand that a line of text and a sentence are not the same thing. 25.6 R Nov Read simple stories independently, pointing to words as they read. 25.8 R Sept Pronounce the majority of phonetically spelt, one and two syllable words, correctly. 25.9 R Feb Follow words with eyes without having to point. 25.10 R Feb Individually read aloud sentences from a familiar story or poem to a group or the whole class. 26.1 R Oct Select and read for pleasure stories with familiar, repetitive and predictable patterns. 26.2 R Apr With guidance, select books appropriate to their interest and reading level from a shelf of books in the classroom.. 26.3 R Oct Choose to frequently reread favourite stories and non-fiction books. 27.4 R Oct Retell, in the correct order, the main events of a simple story. 27.5 R Nov Recall one or two important points after listening to a short text. 28.3 R Nov Discuss the connections between events in stories. 28.4 R Jan State, with reasons, whether they think a character is good or bad. 30.2 R Mar Read aloud a short, single verse, poem. June May Apr Mar Feb Jan Dec Nov Oct Sept Starting Month Skill CS No. The Planning Guide 147 Learning Outcome 34.2 W May Compose several original sentences based on a picture. 34.3 W Nov Illustrate a story with a picture and write a caption using real or invented spelling. 35.1 W Mar List sets of rhyming words. 35.2 W Mar Compose simple rhyming couplets. 36.1 W Dec Create a birthday or Christmas card with an original message. 37.3 W Feb Write short lists for a specified purpose, for example, a shopping list. 37.4 W Apr Write a few words or a sentence describing a recent experience. 37.5 W Apr Compose several original sentences describing a familiar person. 37.6 W May Write several sentences on one idea, picture or topic, using invented spelling where necessary. 38.1 W Mar Discuss what they intend to write, with a teacher and/or peer, before writing it. 39.2 W Sept Develop a sense of pride in presenting neat and attractive written work. 39.3 W Sept Underline heading and rule off work. 39.4 W Jan Create a simple picture book with original words or sentences and having the appearance of a book, for example with a front cover, title, and the author's name. 40.11 W Sept Form the 26 upper and lower-case letters of the alphabet and numbers without tracing. 40.12 W Sept Legibly copy print sentences from the board. 40.13 W Apr Join some letters to others, cursively, for example, c, a, o, l 41.3 W Nov Spell words phonetically, so that all the sounds are represented by a least one letter. 41.4 W Dec Write captions for their own drawings, using invented spelling where necessary. 42.3 W Nov Avoid inappropriately using capital letters in the middle of words and sentences. 42.4 W Oct Use capital letters for names of people. 42.5 W Oct Use capital letters for names of places, days and months. 42.6 W Sept Use capital letters at the beginning of sentences. 42.7 W Nov Use capital letter for the word 'I' 43.1 W Dec Use a full stop at the end of telling sentences. 43.2 W Feb Appropriately use question marks. 44.1 W Oct Form the plural of nouns by adding -s. 44.2 W Apr Use appropriate word order for simple subject-verb-object sentences in original writing.. 44.3 W Apr Correctly use the articles "a" and "an" in original writing. 44.4 W May Appropriately substitute the nouns with the pronoun "it" and "them" in original writing. 45.1 W Apr Modify a noun with an adjective in an original sentence. 148 The Planning Guide Scope and Sequence Chart for Standard One KEY Every Day or Almost Every Day Major Focus of Unit or Month / Regular Activity Secondary Focus of Unit or Month / Occasional Activity Ongoing Development and Monitoring by the Teacher Learning Outcomes 2.6 L Jan Accurately write a sentence that is dictated. 2.7 L Sept Draw a picture with several elements described by another person. 2.8 L Sept Recall information from stories, poems and non-fiction texts presented orally. 3.5 L Dec Listen politely to a variety of speakers. 4.2 L Sept Distinguish between types of speech, including casual conversation, writing and jokes. Respect the views of others especially when they disagree, and be courteous to and 4.3 L Sept thoughtful of others. Discuss the emotions they feel when listening to stories, poems and non fiction texts 5.5 L Nov presented orally. 6.6 V Feb Determine the sequence and main idea of a story told entirely in pictures. 6.7 V Nov Tell a story or sequence based on a series of pictures. 7.3 V Feb Identify and discuss the emotions of story characters or real people depicted pictorially. 8.7 S Oct Maintain a conversation with a series of short exchanges. 9.3 S Sept Express and explore ideas based on the imagination. 9.4 S Sept Give simple reasons for their ideas based on direct observation or concrete experience. Using several sentences consecutively, describe an incident or tell a story based on recent 10.5 S Nov or past own experience, in an audible voice. 11.3 S May Give a short report on a favourite topic to the rest of the class. Demonstrate an ability to express ideas to people with whom they are not very familiar, for 12.4 S Sept example visitors to the school. Talk freely and easily about personal or group experiences and demonstrate a willingness 12.5 S Sept and eagerness to speak. In a small group, develop and perform simple role play based on a recent event or news 13.3 S Sept item. 14.5 S Nov When reciting, assume appropriate posture to aid voice and breath control. 14.6 S Nov Individually, recite simple poems with actions, either from memory or from a text. 15.3 S Sept Work alongside other students in a group, sharing equipment. C S N o S k i l l S t a r t i n g M o n t h S e p t O c t N o v D e c J a n F e b M a r M a r M a y J u n e The Planning Guide 149 Learning Outcomes 16.2 S Sept Consistently pronounce commonly encountered words appropriately and clearly. Apply appropriate present, past and future tense forms of verbs when speaking standard 17.4 S Oct English 17.5 S Oct Modify a noun with two or more adjectives in a spoken sentence. Use the telephone intelligently and courteously for a variety of purposes using appropriate 18.2 S Nov forms of language. 19.2 S Jan Indicate, by varying the tone and pitch of the voice, when a question is being asked. Read words with common end clusters, for example -ld, -lk, -sk, -mp, -sp, -ct, -ft, -lt, -pt, - 20.16 R Oct xt, -lf, -nch, -lth. Read words with common initial consonant clusters, for example, cl, cr, fl, fr, gl, gr, pl, pr, 20.17 R Jan sc, scr, sk, sl, sm, sp, spl, spr, squ, str, sw, tw, thr, shr. Read words containing the spelling patterns: ur (burn), ear (hear), ere (there), are (scare), 20.18 R Mar air (fair), oor (floor), aw (law), au (caught), ore (more), ea (bread) Read words containing the spelling patterns ph, wh, kn, igh, ough, hard ch (choir), and 20.19 R May words in which s, si, and ti represent a soft "j" or a "sh" sound as in vision, pleasure, station Use knowledge of similar words to read unfamiliar words correctly, e.g. getting slight from 20.20 R Nov light, shroud from loud, etc. 22.10 R Nov Use knowledge of common prefixes and suffixes to identify the meaning of a word. 22.11 R Nov Use background knowledge of the topic to identify the meaning of an unknown word. 24.4 R Nov Place a series of words that begin with the same letter in correct alphabetical order. 25.11 R Sept When reading aloud, expect sentences to make sense and re-read when they do not. When reading aloud, recognize that full-stops and capital letters mark the beginning and 25.12 R Oct end of sentences and pause at full-stops. 25.13 R Sept Individually read aloud a familiar short story. Pronounce the majority of phonetically spelt words and common irregularly spelt words 25.14 R Sept correctly. 25.15 R Sept Show awareness of the audience when reading aloud. Independently, select fiction and non-fiction books appropriate to their interest and reading 26.4 R Sept level from a shelf of books in the classroom.. 27.6 R Sept Describe characters encountered in a story, using original words. 28.5 R Nov Discuss multiple causes of an event in a story. 28.6 R Sept Discuss the main theme of a story. 28.7 R Sept Based on the plot, discuss why events happen the way they do in a simple story. Evaluate, with reasons, the actions of story characters, for example, if they were 28.8 R Nov brave/foolish/selfish/generous, or acted in reasonable or unreasonable ways. 29.3 R Sept Link events and characters in stories to their own experience. 30.3 R Dec Read a short poem and discuss its meaning 31.3 R Nov Read and follow a set of instructions telling them to perform three consecutive actions. 32.2 R Oct List the key points from a short non-fiction text. Note that "fairy stories" and other traditional stories often follow a similar pattern and often 33.2 R Nov have distinctive beginning, middle and ending structures. C S N o S k i l l S t a r t i n g M o n t h S e p t O c t N o v D e c J a n F e b M a r M a r M a y J u n e 150 The Planning Guide Learning Outcomes Compose an original story, of at least five sentences, based on a picture, another story or 34.4 W Oct personal experience, and illustrate it with a picture. 34.5 W Sept Rewrite a familiar story using original words. 35.3 W May Compose short poems that rhyme. Create greeting cards for a variety of purposes, for example get well, congratulations, 36.2 W Dec birthdays and anniversaries. Write a short letter to a friend to invite them to an event, to accept and invitation or to 36.3 W Oct express thanks 37.7 W Oct Write a short non-fiction text, presenting ideas in a logical, sequential order. 37.8 W Oct Keep a daily record (journal) of events. 37.9 W Nov Write a paragraph describing a recent experience. 37.10 W Dec Write a paragraph describing interests. 38.2 W Oct Generate ideas relevant to a topic by brainstorming. 39.5 W Sept Use margins appropriately. Head papers in a manner prescribed by the teacher, for example by putting their name, 39.6 W Sept class, the date and the title of the work being completed. 39.7 W Nov Indent paragraphs. 40.13 W Sept Join most letters to form cursive writing. 40.15 W Sept Develop a neat, legible handwriting. 41.5 W Dec Appropriately form plurals by adding -es and by changing y/ey to ies in original writing. 42.8 W Nov Use capital letters for the names of streets, buildings and other geographical features. 43.3 W Nov Appropriately use commas in a series of adjectives or nouns. 43.4 W Feb Use an apostrophe in common contractions. Appropriately use simple present and simple past forms of the verbs be, do, and have in 44.2 W Oct original writing. 44.3 W Oct Construct simple noun-verb-noun sentences correctly in original writing 45.2 W Nov Modify a noun with two or more adjectives in an original sentence. C S N o S k i l l S t a r t i n g M o n t h S e p t O c t N o v D e c J a n F e b M a r M a r M a y J u n e The Planning Guide 151 Sample Annual Plan for Infant I (September and October Only) SEPTEMBER Theme: ...................................................... Skill Area Content Standard Student Activities Listening CS1: Identify and Distinguish  Identify the sounds: s, short a and i, t, p and n between Sounds in spoken words.  Orally blend sounds together to make words. CS2: Listen for Information  Listen to rhymes.  Answer literal comprehension questions after hearing a story. Viewing CS6: Comprehend and Interpret  Give information based on a picture. Visual Images  Differentiate between shapes and letters. Speaking CS8: Ask and Answer Questions  Answer questions about self and family  Routinely raise hand when wanting to answer a CS11: Deliver Reports and question Speeches  Take turns in regular whole-class morning circle, CS14: Recite Poetry without interrupting others.  Chorally, recite simple rhymes and accompany CS15: Participate in Group them with actions. Discussions  While speaking, enunciate all the sounds of CS16: Pronounce Words words. Appropriately Reading CS20: Apply Phonics Knowledge  Recognize the letters Ss, Aa, Tt, Ii, Pp, Nn and link them to the appropriate sound. CS25: Read Aloud  Point to words that contain the letters Ss, Aa, Tt, CS29: Relate personally to Ii, Pp, Nn. stories  Picture read or pretend to read story books.  Track the teacher’s finger when he/she is reading to them and pointing to the words  Express like/dislike of and other emotions after a story has been read aloud by the teacher. Writing CS40: Write Clearly and Legibly  Demonstrate the correct technique for holding a pencil. CS41: Spell Words Appropriately  Colour in pictures, scribble and make shapes in CS42: Use Capital Letters writing. Appropriately  Trace the letters Ss, Aa, Tt, Ii, Pp, Nn using dots, writing on a page from left to right and top to bottom and differentiate between the upper and lower case letters.  Use letter like forms or single letters to add a caption to a drawing. 152 The Planning Guide OCTOBER Theme: ...................................................... Skill Area Content Standard Student Activities Listening CS1: Identify and  Identify the sounds : hard c, e, h, r, m, and d Distinguish between Sounds in spoken words.  Listen to songs and poems and identify when CS2: Listen for Information they rhyme.  Segment CVC words containing the sounds s,a,t,i,p,n into individual sounds, for example s/i/t, p/i/t, p/a/t, etc.  Answer literal comprehension questions after hearing a story. Viewing CS6: Comprehend and  While listening to a story, answer questions Interpret Visual Images based on accompanying pictures CS7: Respond to Visual  Express like/dislike of and other emotions Images after seeing a picture. Speaking CS8: Ask and Answer  Continue to routinely raise hand when Questions wanting to answer a question  Continue to take turns in regular whole-class CS9: Express Opinions and morning circle, without interrupting others. Communicate Ideas  Display confidence to speak during morning CS10: Narrate Real and circle. Fictional Events  During morning circle, tell classmates about a CS11: Deliver Reports and recent event that happened to them. Speeches  Ask permission for something using “please”.  Chorally, recite simple rhymes and CS12: Display Self-Esteem accompany them with actions. while Speaking CS14: Recite Poetry Reading CS20: Apply Phonics  Recognize the letters Cc, Ee, Hh, Rr, Mm and Knowledge Dd and link them to the appropriate sound.  Point to words that contain the letters Cc, Ee, CS21: Recognize Words by Hh, Rr,Mm and Dd. Sight  Distinguish between words that begin with CS24: Use a dictionary the sounds of s, short a, short i, p, t, n, c, CS25: Read Aloud short e, h, r, m and d and those that do not. CS27: Comprehend Fiction  Blend a vowel and a consonant together to Texts read a two letter word, for example, at, it, ma, pa, in, am.  Point to regularly occurring words in the text of familiar rhymes.  Recite all the letters of the alphabet, in order.  Picture read or pretend to read story books.  Track the teacher’s finger when he/she is reading to them and pointing to the words  Recall repeated phrases from a story or rhyme read to them by the teacher.  Perform a simple role play about a scene from a story read aloud to them by the teacher.  Express like/dislike of and other emotions after a story has been read aloud by the teacher. The Planning Guide 153 Skill Area Content Standard Student Activities Writing CS40: Write Clearly and  Demonstrate correct technique for holding a Legibly pencil  Develop motor skills through colouring, CS41: Spell Words tracing and scribbling, and begin to colour Appropriately “between the lines”. CS42: Use Capital Letters  Write slants, curves and letter-like shapes Appropriately free-hand.  Write letters on a page from left to right and top to bottom.  Form, with tails, the letters Cc, Ee, Hh, Rr, Mm and Dd by tracing dots on a page and by writing free-hand on guidelines provided.  Use letter like forms or single letters to add a caption to a drawing.  Differentiate between capital and lower case letters of the alphabet. 154 The Planning Guide Sample Unit Plan for Infant One Unit of Work in Language Arts September 2007 Class: Infant One No. of Students 30 Duration of Unit 4 weeks Number of Lessons 18 Duration of Lessons 90 minutes Theme: Animals Topics/Content Standards Listening: CS1: Identify and Distinguish between Sounds CS2: Listen for Information CS6: Comprehend and Interpret Visual Images CS8: Ask and Answer Questions Speaking: CS11: Deliver Reports and Speeches CS14: Recite Poetry CS15: Participate in Group Discussions CS16: Pronounce Words Appropriately Reading: CS20: Apply Phonics Knowledge CS25: Read Aloud CS29: Relate personally to stories Writing: CS40: Write Clearly and Legibly CS41: Spell Words Appropriately CS42: Use Capital Letters Appropriately Sub-Topics / Objectives By the end of the unit, students will be able to:  Identify the sounds: s, short a and i, t, p and n in spoken words.  Answer literal comprehension questions after hearing a story.  Give information based on a picture.  Differentiate between shapes and letters.  Answer questions about self and family  Routinely raise hand when wanting to answer a question  Take turns in regular whole-class morning circle, without interrupting others.  Chorally, recite simple rhymes and accompany them with actions.  While speaking, enunciate all the sounds of words.  Recognize the letters Ss, Aa, Tt, Ii, Pp, Nn and link them to the appropriate sound.  Point to words that contain the letters Ss, Aa, Tt, Ii, Pp, Nn.  Picture read or pretend to read story books.  Track the teacher’s finger when he/she is reading to them and pointing to the words  Express like/dislike of and other emotions after a story has been read aloud by the teacher.  Demonstrate the correct technique for holding a pencil.  Colour in pictures, scribble and make shapes in writing.  Trace the letters Ss, Aa, Tt, Ii, Pp, Nn using dots, writing on a page from left to right and top to bottom and differentiate between the upper and lower case letters.  Use letter like forms or single letters to add a caption to a drawing. The Planning Guide 155 Teaching Strategies/Student Activities Listening Teaching Strategies Listening  Read Alouds Comprehension Student Activities  Answering literal and personal response questions about stories read aloud Viewing Student Activities Picture Comprehension  Picture matching games  Describing a picture to a partner Speaking Teaching Strategies Discussion  Morning Circle  Explicit teaching of rules and procedures  Modeling of good speaking practices  Monitoring of sound enunciation Student Activities  Contributing to Morning Circle  Answering questions about self and family Reading Teaching Strategies Phonics: Letter-sounds  Storytelling featuring the target sound; s,a,t,i,p,n, (sound  Presenting the letter in both lower and upper case recognition, land  Linking the letter to an action linking sounds to Student Activities letters)  Identifying/drawing pictures of words beginning/containing the target sound  Singing songs/recite rhymes featuring the target letter sound, making actions  Clapping when they hear the target sound in a word  Identifying the letter in printed words around the classroom  Matching upper and lower case letters Reading Teaching Strategies Comprehension:  Read Alouds  Monitoring of how students track words during read alouds  Student Activities  Answering literal and personal response questions about stories read aloud  Picture reading Writing Teaching Strategies Penmanship:  Modeling correct pencil hold  Modeling how to trace dots Student Activities  Workbook activities  Filling in missing letters  Colouring worksheets/pictures  Write letters by tracing dots.  Match capital letters with lower case letters 156 The Planning Guide Independent Writing Student Activities  Adding captions to pictures Teaching Materials Phonics Stories: - Inky Iguana (Fast Phonics) - Tina Tells the Truth by Ruth Lerner (Alphapets) Jingles and Songs - Penny’s Got a Pineapple by Fran Avni - The Alphabet Song Picture flashcards with dots representing sounds. Letter flashcards Letter and picture flashcards Texts Fast Phonics Workbook Language Tree The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle Why A Dog? By A Cat by Robyn Koontz Rudyard Kipling’s Jungle Book (Audio CD) Turtle and Snake Go camping by Kate Spohn (Level 1 Reader) Dan the Ant by Jennifer Gillis (Level 1 Reader) Assessment Strategies: Observation: Responses to letter prompts and flashcards. Ability to locate target letter in printed word. Ability to identify a word spoken aloud that contains the target letter. Response to questions about stories. Contribution to morning circle. Workbook Activities: Tracing of target letter. Colouring pictures. Freehand writing of target letter (may be “untidy”). Matching words and letters. Test Circle pictures beginning with the target letter. Reference Materials Fast Phonics Teachers’ Guide www.schoolexpress.com www.songsforteaching.com 157 Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers 159 Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers Alliteration Alliteration is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in two or more neighbouring words or syllables:- initial rhyme Alphabet Code The way in which sounds (phonemes) are mapped by letters (graphemes). See also grapheme, In English, the 26 letters of the alphabet map approximately 42 sounds in a phoneme, phonics. variety of ways. - Some sounds, for example /b/ are almost always represented by the same letter. - Some sounds, for example the long vowel sounds, are written in a variety of ways. - Some sounds, for example /ch/ and /sh/ are represented by two letters. The study of the relationship between sounds and letters is called phonics. Annual Plan A plan covering the whole school year. The purpose of the annual plan is to ensure that all the content standards and learning outcomes contained in the curriculum are adequately taught during the year. Following this curriculum, the annual plan should list skill areas, content standards and broadly described student activities. The annual plan should be based on a scope and sequence chart that outlines when, and to what extent, each content standard will be taught. Usually the year is divided into a number of units, each of which is based on a content theme, such as animals, people, natural disasters, and so on. Each unit may last for one calendar month or for a specified length of time, for example, six weeks. Whichever approach is taken, it is important to consider the number of actual teaching days available, taking into account examinations, holidays, planned trips and other special events. Assessment A judgment on the knowledge, skills and attitudes acquired by students. The purpose of assessment is to discover the students’ level of achievement in each of the content standards. During the year, all content standards should be assessed. Teachers need to use a variety of assessment tools including, but not limited to: - written and spoken responses to reading passages, visual and other stimuli - extended pieces of creative and informative writing - formal evaluation of prepared speeches, recitations and read alouds - observation - journals - research projects conducted individually and in groups - miscue analyses based on the teacher listening to the student reading a text - student self evaluation or evaluation by their peers - tests and quizzes - examinations. It is very important that assessment is in line with lesson and unit objectives. 160 Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers The term informal assessment is used to describe activities that occur within routine class teaching, that is, without causing a break in instruction, which are used to evaluate students’ progress. Much informal assessment, for example of group-work, students’ reading and role plays relies upon observation. This can be unstructured and unscored, or it can be based on a check-list that leads to a grade. Traditional assessment techniques include tests, exams, essay type assignments and text-book exercises. These are often standardized, so that all students are given the same questions and direct comparisons between students are possible. Alternative assessment refers to non-traditional techniques, including drama, journals and projects which are designed to evaluate each student in a particular way, making direct comparison between students very difficult. Alternative assessment might reward effort, motivation, teamwork, leadership and other similar attributes. Assessment Rubric A tool used to assess students work based on clearly defined criteria The best way of grading work meaningfully and fairly is to use assessment rubrics that outline the criteria that will be used to judge a piece of work or an oral performance. Many rubrics for written work have criteria for judging (a) content, including its relevance and the level of detail provided (b) structure, including paragraphing and the logical sequencing of ideas (c) style, including word choice and sentence structure, and (d) spelling, punctuation and grammar. Rubrics for oral presentations might also include criteria for (a) use of voice, including clarity, intonation and stress, volume, and variation, (b) confidence and (c) relationship with audience. Checklists, with tick-boxes for various outcomes, are a useful tool for assessments based on observation. Big book A large book with large pictures and lettering that can be used by teachers when reading to a large group of students. Bilingual Education A person who has some use of more than one language, even if one is See dominant, can be regarded as bilingual. It is often beneficial to use more than one language to teach a bilingual student, especially in the early years See also: First Language, of school. Target Language, Kriol. A common form of bilingual education is transitional bilingual education which occurs when the second (target) language is introduced in a planned, gradual way. For example, if a student enters school knowing little or no English, the teacher may decide to teach mostly in another language (for example Spanish) during the first few weeks and months of Infant 1 while progressively developing the students’ ability in English. Over time, the use of Spanish would decrease and the use of English would increase until, probably by the end of lower division, most instruction would be in English. Blending Forming a word by combining parts of words, for example, putting together the sounds /c/ /a/ /t/ to form the word cat. Often blending refers to forming a word by combining the sounds represented by letters: - sounding out. Students should be encouraged to blend early in the process of learning phonics. Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers 161 Brainstorming A group activity used to quickly generate a large number of ideas. Group members usually call out ideas as they occur to them. The ideas are often then organized into web diagrams. Chunking Grouping small units, for example consonant clusters, to form words while reading. Classroom Library A space in the classroom where books are displayed and available to students. In a good classroom library, there is suitable reading material of different types and difficulty different levels: some fiction and some non-fiction. Books which are out-dated or clearly unsuitable for the class should not be in the classroom library. Every student should have easy and frequent access to the library. A lower division classroom library can include stories, biographies, information books, picture books, newspapers, magazines, brochures, textbooks, student-authored books, poetry, and reference books, including encyclopaedias and dictionaries Through the classroom library, students can learn to keep records, to care for books and to classify them. They can also learn how to chose a suitable book by evaluating its title, author, front and back cover and physical appearance. Teachers can appoint a librarian, on a rotating basis, who is responsible for caring for the library. Cloze Procedure A “fill in the blanks” activity. Coherence The degree to which ideas are presented in a logical order. Cohesion The degree to which different words, sentences and paragraphs are linked and follow on from each other. Comprehension The construction of meaning from a spoken or written text. Comprehension depends upon the ability to decode words using phonics knowledge, the ability to recognize words by sight, knowledge of vocabulary, reading fluency, knowledge of the topic, grammatical knowledge, knowledge of the context, and other factors. Comprehension Comprehension strategies are tools used by readers to help them understand Strategies a text. Their use involves the activation of knowledge of the text’s topic, See also text vocabulary, grammar, syntax, purpose, medium, structure and so on. comprehension instruction Comprehension strategies include predicting, sequencing, summarizing, skimming, scanning, re-reading and asking questions and using textual clues and other information to enhance understanding of what is being read. Concept map A web diagram in which cells (circles) containing questions or ideas are linked by arrows, which are usually labeled. The purpose of the diagram is to represent the relationship between concepts. Consonant 1. Any speech sound characterized by constriction or closure at one or more points in the breath channel. 2. A letter or symbol that represents a consonant. Consonant Cluster A group or sequence of consonants that appear together in a word without a vowel between them. For example str and tch in stretch. Consonant-Vowel- A three letter word in which the letters follow the sequence consonant, then Consonant (CVC) word vowel, then consonant. For example cat, dog, sat, man, etc. 162 Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers Content Standard A a statement of what students need to know and be able to do at the end of their primary schooling. In this curriculum, each content standard refers to one of forty-five skill elements relating to language arts. Each content standard has four components: (1) a number, (2) a short title, (3) a description of the skills covered and (4) learning outcomes that specify exactly which components of the skill need to be achieved at each particular grade level. When writing their annual plans, teachers should ensure that all content standards are adequately covered at some point during the year. Some content standards, for example CS20 Apply Phonics Knowledge require substantial teaching throughout all the lower division grades while others require minimal teaching at this level. When writing lesson plans or weekly schemes, teachers need to focus on the learning outcomes. Context The situation surrounding the text, including the type of text, the means of communication, the purpose of the text, and the relationship between people interacting with it. Context Clue Information from the context (see above) that a reader can use to enhance see also comprehension comprehension. strategies Creole see Kriol, below Critical comprehension Understanding the information in a passage and relating it to one’s own experiences and values. Critical Thinking (1) The ability to solve real world problems (2) The ability to evaluate one’s own thinking Critical Literacy 1. The ability to use language for thinking and problem solving 2. The ability to connect a text to one’s own reality Cursive Any system of writing in which the letters of a word are joined together. Decoding Skills The abilities needed to read and form words from written alphabet symbols, see also word attack mainly phonics and sight word recognition. skills, phonics Students may be able to decode words, that is read them aloud correctly, without comprehending their meaning or the meaning of the text. For this reason, decoding skills must be taught alongside other comprehension strategies. Defining Vocabulary A limited range of words used for the word definitions in learner’s dictionaries Developmental An approach to teaching reading and writing based on the identification of Approach to Literacy four distinct phases of development. Phase 1: Children read by looking for clues such as the colour or shape of the word. They may recognize common symbols, such as a STOP road sign. In this phase, children will scribble and may write some letter-like shapes. Phase 2: Children read by focusing on individual letters, usually the first and last letters, especially if they are consonants, of a word. They begin writing words in a similar way, that is by writing one or two letters. Phase 3: As phonics knowledge increases, children increasingly read and Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers 163 write words according to letter sounds, that is phonetically. In phases 2 and 3 inventive spelling is normal. Phase 4: As children’s knowledge of the alphabet code and of sight words becomes more sophisticated and extensive, their reading and writing approaches conventional norms. In this phase, most words are read automatically and most words are spelt correctly. A developmental approach is consistent with this curriculum. Depending on their previous experiences, most students will enter school at phase 1 or phase 2. During Infant 1, most students will reach phase 3 and will continue at this stage through Infant 2. Some students will reach phase 4 in Standard 1, and development of this phase continues thereafter. For students to move through the phases, they need lots of opportunities to read appropriate texts and lots of opportunities to engage in free, creative, writing. This implies that inventive spelling will feature strongly in Infant 1 and Infant 2 classes. Handwriting also develops over time. Having students practice tracing letters for long periods of time is inconsistent with this approach. Instead, the letters of a student at phase 1 and the beginning of phase 2 may be barely recognizable. However, as the student progresses through phases 2 and 3, letter formation should become increasingly controlled and accurate. Dialect A variety of a language spoken by a particular cultural group or in a particular region. The vocabulary and grammar of a dialect, especially when written, is usually similar to the standard form of the language. However, speech patterns, especially pronunciation and prosody may be very different. Creoles, such as Belize Kriol, are usually sufficiently distinct from standard forms to be considered separate languages. Differentiation Planning different instruction and/or setting different work for different See also enrichment, students or groups of students according to their ability or other remediation characteristics. Digraph Two letters that, written together, represent one sound. For example ch (in chop), th (in thumb), sh (in sheep), ee (in feed), ay in bay, and ai (in bait). Drop Everything and See sustained silent reading. Read Echo reading An activity where a skilled reader reads a text, a sentence at a time, as the learner tracks. The learner then echoes or imitates the skilled reader. Enrichment Strategies Activities and other techniques designed to improve the students’ understanding beyond the base level of the lesson. Etymology The study of the origins of words Evaluation See assessment Examinations End of unit or end of term tests designed to evaluate whether the learning see also assessment outcomes covered have been achieved. Examinations are usually standardized so that all students are tested in the same way. This enables direct comparison between students. Great care must be taken when designing exams to ensure that they are a fair way of testing the work covered for the term. As far as possible, exams should also reflect the teaching strategies and learning activities used. 164 Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers Examinations must also test the achievement of curriculum learning outcomes. Expository Writing Text that explains an event, concept, or idea using facts and examples. Eye-voice span The average number of words that the eye is ahead of the voice in reading. Readers with poor eye-voice span are unlikely to read fluently or with appropriate intonation and stress. Fast Phonics A systematic, synthetic phonics programme developed by the Ministry of Education in Belize. In Fast Phonics, each phonemic sound is associated with a letter, an action, a story, a picture and a key word. Phonemes are divided into groups and taught in a specified order as follows: Group 1: s a t i p n Group 2: c/k e h r m d Group 3: g o u l f b Group 4: ai j oa ie ee or Group 5: z w ng v oo oo Group 6: y x ch sh th th Group 7: qu ou oi ue er ar The use of Fast Phonics is consistent with this curriculum. First Language The language a person learns first, at home, from their parents and See also Kriol caregivers. In Belize, it is rare for this first language to be standard English. The terms first language, home language and native language are usually used interchangeably: that is they are taken to mean just about the same thing. Using a student’s first language for instruction may be appropriate for lower division classes, especially when the student struggles to grasp information and concepts in English. The National Language Policy also recognizes the important cultural and social role that languages other than English play in Belizean life. Schools can, and should, provide students with opportunities to use these other languages. Fluency The ability to read text rapidly, smoothly, effortlessly, and automatically with little conscious attention to the mechanics of reading, such as decoding. Developing fluency is important because a student reading fluently is more likely to remember what is read and more likely to make connections with other knowledge and experience. Fluency is different from accuracy. A students who reads words slowly with few mistakes is likely to be relying on phonics skills rather than recognizing words by sight. Reading fluency usually improves as sight word knowledge increases. Form (Language Form) The symbols of language and the way they are combined. see also function Studying word order, spelling, punctuation and traditional grammar involves the study of form. The accurate use of language form is seen as important because errors in word order, spelling, punctuation and so on can lead to, often unintended, changes in meaning. Free Writing Writing in which the students are authors: that is, the students write using see also Developmental their own original words. Approaches to Literacy All students, from Infant 1 up, need lots of opportunities to engage in free writing. As literacy skills develop, the length and complexity of a student’s writing should increase. Function (Language The purpose of a word in a sentence or of a complete text. A functional Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers 165 Function) approach to language arts stresses the importance of how language is used to achieve a communicative purpose. The effectiveness of a piece of language use for getting something done is seen as more important than its accuracy in terms of spelling, grammar, and so on. Functional Task A learning activity based around the purposeful use of language. In lower division teaching, games can be used to create functional tasks within the classroom because students can learn language as they play the game. Situational role-plays, for example, the classroom shop, can also be used to create functional tasks. Genre A kind or type of text. The term was traditionally applied to literature but is now applied to all spoken and written types of text. Within literature, there are three broad genres: poetry, prose and drama. However, these broad types can be subdivided into many classes of text, all of which can be called a genre, for example, comedy, tragedy, romance, science and history. Grammar The rules of a language, particularly those governing the way words relate to each other in sentences to make meaning. Grammar-at-the-point- A powerful instructional technique in which teachers intervene to discuss and of-writing correct grammar as the students write. This technique is opportunistic, in that teachers respond to whichever errors students make, and not just those that are the main focus of the lesson. Grapheme The written representation of a phoneme (sound). In English, graphemes See also alphabet code, are often single letters, for example the letter ‘d’ represents the sound /d/ as digraph, phoneme. in duck. However, some sounds are represented by more than one letter, for example when ‘oa’ represents the long /o/ sound, as in boat, or when ‘sh’ represents the first sound in shop. Guided Reading When students read aloud with feedback from another person (teacher, parent, sibling, peer, etc), including shared reading in groups. Guided Questioning Guided questioning is a group or individual activity where learners are asked questions about a text both before and after they read it. They must find the answers in the text by reading it independently and silently. The technique is also used with listening passages. Guided Writing A technique in which students’ original writing occurs in a structured lesson. Often the teacher presents a mini-lesson outlining the writing task before the students write their own material. As some students write independently, the teacher holds a writing conference with a small group of others. Home Language See First Language Homograph One of two or more words that have the same spelling but which differ in meaning and possibly pronunciation. For example lead (to conduct) and lead (metal) Homonym One of two or more words that have the same sound and the same spelling but differ in meaning, such as bank (embankment), bank (place where money is kept) and bank (lean to one side) Homophone One of two or more words, such as night and knight, that are pronounced the same but differ in meaning, origin, and spelling. 166 Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers Inference A conclusion based on reasoning Inferential Sometimes called interpretative comprehension. The ability to understand comprehension what is implied by a text rather than what is directly stated. Informal Assessment See Assessment Integrated Language Teaching in which listening, speaking, reading, writing and viewing skills are Arts Teaching developed at the same time as the students study content-based written and See also integration spoken texts, usually on a clearly identified theme. In an integrated (curriculum), writing approach, there is no artificial separation of spelling from writing, literature process or grammar. For example, spelling is one aspect of writing that needs to be learnt alongside all the others. This approach differs from one in which various skills are taught separately and explicitly. Independent original writing and the use of the writing process is an important part of integrated language arts teaching. Students write about a topic after they have talked and read about it. They then discuss their writing with the teacher and their peers and revise it. In an integrated approach to language arts, all forms of creative expression, including drawing, computing, dance and drama, are important. Central to planning integrated lessons are (1) the theme of the lesson (2) the relationship of that theme to the students’ wider experiences and interests (3) the skills to be covered and (4) the links between the theme, the skills and the purpose of reading and writing activities. This curriculum is designed for an integrated approach to language arts. Integration A philosophy of teaching in which content is drawn from several subject (Curriculum) areas to focus on a particular topic or theme. Rather than studying math or See also integrated social studies in isolation, for example, a class might study a unit called The language arts teaching Sea, using math to calculate the depth and volume of the water, science knowledge to distinguish living and non-living things, social studies knowledge to understand why tourism is common in coastal communities and language arts skills to read and write about the topic. Intonation The pattern of pitch (highness and lowness of sound) in a spoken sentence. Inventive Spelling The non-conventional spelling of a word by a student in the early phases of see also developmental literacy development. Phases in the use of inventive spelling are: (1) the approach to literacy use of scribbles and random letters to represent words; (2) the use of prominent letters, for example initial and final consonants, to represent words (HS=house); (3) strictly phonetic spelling of words (conshuss = conscious); and (4) the increasing use of conventional spelling, even for irregularly spelt words. Allowing students to use inventive spelling is believed to encourage their creativity and deepen their understanding of the alphabet code. It also allows students to begin writing original sentences much earlier than if conventional spelling is emphasized. For example, in the first term of Infant 1, students can be asked to add a caption to a picture using inventive spelling (as above). By the end of Infant 1, many students should be able to write a short sentence of using phonetic spelling. Although inventive spelling should be allowed, this must be alongside a strong phonics programme and the teaching of common irregularly spelt “tricky words”. As students progress from Infant 1 to Infant 2 and Standard 1, conventional spelling should be increasingly encouraged. This curriculum allows inventive spelling. Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers 167 Kriol Kriol is the term used for the Creole language of Belize. Kriol and English are two distinct languages. Although Kriol shares many vocabulary items with English, the grammatical structures of the two languages are very different. It is, therefore, not correct to refer to Kriol as broken English. In Belize, many people use Kriol for the majority of their spoken interactions but prefer to use English when writing. This division between the spoken code and the written code is not unique to Belize but is a global phenomenon. It is very important that students understand the difference between English and Kriol. They should be explicitly taught these differences through a process of contrasting items in the two languages. In lower division, the same principles that apply to other first languages can also be applied to Kriol. However, in classrooms where Kriol is the dominant language, teachers should model English to the maximum extent, using Kriol only for special purposes. Teachers may decide to allow their students to use Kriol, especially in class discussions where expression and sharing opinions are important. K-W-L Chart A chart with three columns: K (what I already know), W (what I want to learn, and L (what I have learned). The first column is usually completed in response to questioning led by the teacher. The second column is often completed after students discuss the topic as a class or in small groups. This column sets goals for the lesson. After completing the reading or activity, students discuss what they have learned to fill in the final column. K-W-L encourages students to apply higher-order thinking strategies as they construct meaning from what they read and monitor their progress toward their goals. Language Arts A school subject that focuses on listening, reading, writing, speaking, and viewing skills. In Language Arts, all skills, and sub-skills such as phonics, grammar, spelling and vocabulary, are taught together. Separate lessons for these sub-skills are inappropriate. Language Arts teaching is usually based around content themes. Language Experience A method of teaching literacy in which the students’ own words, usually Approach dictated to the teacher, are used for the classes reading texts. Often four steps are used: discussion, oral dictation, reading, and re-reading. This is an excellent approach following a shared experience such as a field trip. Learning Outcome A statement describing a specific skill that the students are expected to attain in a given period. This curriculum is based on the attainment of specified learning outcomes at each grade level. Planning, especially lesson planning should be based on learning outcomes. The learning outcomes for one grade level are linked, sequentially and hierarchically, to the learning outcomes of other grade levels. Thus the learning outcomes for Infant 2 follow on, but are different from those for Infant 1. Similarly, the Standard 1 learning outcomes are a progression from those of Infant 2. Lesson Objective A lesson objective is a statement of the intended outcome of the lesson, that is, a description of what students will have achieved by the end of it. Writing a good lesson objective involves asking six questions: (1) What are 168 Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers the overall goals of the current unit? (2) What knowledge and experience will the students bring to the lesson? (3) What will the students do during the lesson? (4) How, for example under what conditions, will they perform the activities? (5) To what degree/extent will the activity be accomplished? (6) How will the learning/activity be evaluated? Lesson objectives need to be specific and measurable. For example: “By the end of the lesson students will have written five sentences using a series of adjectives to describe a noun,” is a much better statement than, “By the end of the lesson students will have written five sentences.” The first statement fully describes the intended activity whereas the second does not. There are various, equally valid ways of writing lesson objectives. However, the following styles are commonly used: A: After performing activity “X” students will do “Y” to extent “Z” B: By the end of the lesson, students will have achieved “X”, “Y” and” Z”. C: By the end of the lesson students will be able to . . . . Lesson plans should contain one or more lesson objectives. These objectives should logically link to the students’ previous knowledge and experiences, lesson procedures and assessment strategies. In an integrated approach to language arts it is not necessary to write separate objectives for listening, viewing, reading, writing and speaking. Often, objectives are clearer when these aspects are combined. For example, “After reading and discussing the Three Little Pigs, students will place five events in the correct order.” Lesson Plan Lesson plans are guidelines for a lesson, written by the teacher, to structure See also, annual plan, learning for themselves and the students. unit plan, lesson There is no standardized format for lesson plans. However, most objective, learning lesson plans share common elements, including: class, for example Infant outcome, differentiation, IIK; time and date; number of students; length of the lesson; unit theme; enrichment, mediation. lesson topic and sub-topic(s); students’ previous knowledge and experience; lesson objectives; materials to be used; texts to be used; references to materials consulted; lesson content; lesson procedures, outlining the planned activities in sequence, usually with timing, and possibly including a hook and culminating activities; assessment strategies; enrichment and remediation activities; and evaluation of the lesson. In language arts, the theme of the lesson focuses on content, whereas most of the other sections usually focus on skills. Lesson topics can be based broadly on the content standards of this curriculum and objectives can be based broadly on the learning outcomes. A good lesson plan aligns: that is, there are clear, logical links, between the various sections. For example, there should be a clear link between the objectives and the students’ previous knowledge and experience; the procedures should be a logical way of achieving the content; and the assessment strategies should allow the teacher to evaluate if the objectives have been achieved. Literature-Based See text-based approach. Approach Literacy Traditionally defined as the ability to read and write. However, the ability to comprehend texts at a literal level is insufficient for effective functioning and communication and more recently multiple Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers 169 literacies have been identified. These include functional literacy, computer literacy, visual literacy, media literacy, critical literacy, inferential literacy and creative literacy. In order to prepare the student for modern life and in order to meet the requirements of this curriculum, all the above literacies need to be addressed. Literacy Centre A section of the classroom that has been set apart from the main classroom where students go individually or in small groups to carry out literacy activities. Literacy centres encourage independent learning and, when their use is integrated into regular lessons, they allow the teacher to work intensively with some students while others are engaged in centre activities. A good literacy centre encourages the meaningful and functional use of language. Ideas for a lower division literacy centre include: reading books, games, personal journals, word searches, matching exercises, word and letter cards, unscramble the letters games, puppets, audio cassettes/cds of story books, puppets and toys, etc. Many teachers build their literacy centres around a curriculum theme or a pretend location, for example, a shop, post office, police station, gas station, school, zoo, tourist site, or radio station. Literacy Centre Folders Each student can have a literacy centre folder in which they keep activities completed during their visit to the centre. A folder can also include forms on which the students can record and comment on these activities. Literacy Rich A classroom that gives students the maximum opportunities to engage in Environment both teacher directed and independent literacy activities through the provision of learning centres, reading books and by using effective classroom display. In a literacy rich classroom, for example, there will be many wall charts with ability-appropriate writing and pictures, including some words that the students may not yet be able to read. Literal comprehension Understanding the facts and surface details of what is written or said. Questions beginning who, what, when, and where usually test literal comprehension. Main Idea The chief topic of a text. Miscue Analysis An assessment technique in which the teacher listens to a student read aloud in order to record and analyse errors. For example, a teacher might observe that the student tends to guess words from the first letter or tends to misapply phonics rules. Once the errors have been diagnosed, corrective action could be undertaken. Morning Circle The daily gathering of the class as a group to discuss topics and share ideas, news and other items. Many teachers hold a morning circle at the same time every day. Morpheme The smallest, unit bearing unit of language. Root words, suffixes and prefixes are all morphemes. Morphology The system of the smallest units of meaning in a language, words and parts of words. For example, the word “uninterested” has three morphemes: un, changing the meaning from positive to negative, the root word, interest and –ed indicating the word is an adjective. 170 Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers Motivation A student’s desire to engage in the lesson/learning process. Some students are motivated by a desire to learn (intrinsic motivation), others respond to the prospect of rewards (extrinsic motivation). Motivation is an important factor in learning to read and one of the most important roles of the language arts teacher is to make reading enjoyable for students. Some ways of increasing motivation are: provide reading material that is interesting to the students; have a regular programme of uninterrupted sustained silent reading; set up an attractive classroom library and/or reading corner; and enthusiastically model reading. Native Language See First Language Objective See Lesson Objective Onset The initial consonant sound or sounds of a syllable. Opportune Moments Much effective teaching can occur when a teacher responds to an event, statement, or error which provides an opportunity for teaching something not on the original lesson plan. Usually, these opportune moments lead to brief deviations in instruction before the teacher returns to the original plan. Orthography The writing system, including phonics and spelling, of a language. The See also alphabet code orthography of English has been established over many generations by traditional usage. The orthography of some other languages, for example, Kriol has been developed more recently. Phoneme The smallest unit of sound in language. There are approximately 44 phonemes in standard English: 25 vowel sounds and 19 consonant sounds. Phonemic Awareness The ability to distinguish between separate phonemes in speech. For See also phonological example the ability to hear the sounds /c/ /a/ /t/ as separate sounds in the awareness word cat. Good phonemic awareness aids the learning of phonics and other word decoding skills. Phonetic Relating to the relationship between sounds and symbols in language Phonetic Where words are written according to the usual sound-letter Spelling/Writing correspondences of the language. Phonics A method of teaching reading and writing based on linking the phonemes See also alphabet code, (sounds) of a language to written symbols (usually letters). Students are fast phonics, phoneme, taught to blend letters/sounds together to read words and to segment grapheme spoken words into individual sounds in order to write them. Good phonics knowledge is essential if students are to learn to read and the use of a strong phonics programme is highly recommended. This curriculum assumes that phonics knowledge will be taught explicitly. The recommendation is that phonics teaching should occur for part of every language arts lesson throughout Infant 1 and regularly thereafter. Systematic, synthetic phonics programmes have recently been recommended by a number of major studies in a variety of countries. These programmes involve the explicit teaching of letter-sound relationships, one at a time, in a specified, planned order. Fast Phonics, Jolly Phonics, and All Star Phonics are examples of systematic synthetic phonics programmes. Note: In English, phonics is made difficult because: (1) there are approximately 44 phonemes but only 26 letters; (2) there are approximately 19 vowel phonemes but only 5 vowel letters; (3) letters are used in a variety Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers 171 of ways (see alphabet code) (4) many words are not spelt according to the rules of phonics (see tricky words). Because of these “difficulties” it is essential that students are taught the whole of the alphabet code; thus phonics teaching should continue until all the common variations in spelling patterns, for example, different ways of writing the long vowel sounds, have been learnt. In this curriculum, the teaching of these variations begins in Infant II. Phonology The sound system of a language, ranging from the “basic sound” or phoneme level, to syllables and whole words. Pitch, stress and intonation patterns are also part of a language’s phonology. Phonological The ability to distinguish sounds in speech, including distinguishing between Awareness words, syllables, rhymes, onsets and rimes and phonemes. Pragmatics The use of language in different situations to achieve a speaker or writer’s purpose. For example, the use of polite forms in formal situations. Print Rich Environment See Literacy Rich Environment Prosody The patterns of stress and intonation in spoken language See also phonology Readability How easy or difficult a text is to read. Generally, a text is at the reading level of a student if he/she can read at least ninety percent of the words in it. However, the readability, or reading level of a text is also influenced by its total length, the average length of sentences, the structure of the sentences, the number of syllables in the words, the number of vocabulary words that are known/not known by the reader, the number of irregular spelling patterns, the familiarity of the reader with the topic, the lay-out of the text, including font, the use of pictures, the use of headings, the number of words per page and the structure of the text, including the logical sequencing of ideas and paragraphing. In addition, the environment in which a text is read and the motivation of the reader affect its readability. Most texts for lower division will have few words per page, lots of pictures, and a predominance of phonetically spelt words and simple sentence structures. “Read Aloud” A teaching technique in which a text is read aloud to a group or whole class of students by the teacher. Register A variety of language typically used in a specific type of communicative setting. For example, the same person uses language in different ways depending on whether they are at home talking to their children, at school, at work, in church and so on. Additionally, many people in Belize switch between standard English, Kriol and/or another language according to the situation and according to who they are speaking to. It is important that students understand the differences between various registers and the appropriate circumstances for their use. It is recommended that, except when using other languages for clear educational purposes, teachers should speak in standard English in the classroom (see Language Policy Statement, above). Remediation Intervention to resolve a learning difficulty on the part of one or more see also differentiation students. Teachers should plan regular remediation activities for their weaker students. 172 Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers Reporting Schools need to report back to parents and guardians on their child’s progress in the skill areas outlined by the curriculum. It would be impractical and inappropriate to give a separate grade for each of the content standards so a way of summarizing this information needs to be found. However, report cards should reflect the progress the student has made in meeting the content standards, so an exclusive focus on spelling, punctuation and grammar would not be appropriate. Rime The part of a syllable following the initial consonant cluster or the whole of a see also onset syllable that begins with a vowel sound. For example, in shop the onset is sh and the rime is op. In egg, the rime is egg. Rhyme A word that has the same ending sound as another. For example, cold and bold, heat and sweet. Scope and Sequence In this curriculum, a table listing the content standards, when (sequence) Chart and to what extent (scope) they should be taught. Creating a scope and sequence chart is an essential step in annual planning. Segmenting Dividing a word into parts, for example into syllables or phonemes. The development of an ability segment words into syllables, onsets and rimes and phonemes is an important step in the process of learning to read and write. Students who can identify the different sounds that make up a word are more likely to understand and successfully apply phonics knowledge. Semantics The meaning, and the study of the meaning, of language. Sight Word Any word which is read automatically, that is, without sounding out or See also tricky word guessing. This includes both phonetically and unconventionally spelt words. A word becomes a sight word when it has been read often enough for it to become fixed in a reader’s memory. Skill Ability to do something In this curriculum, the content standards and learning outcomes describe language skills and the overall goal is that students become proficient in their use. Skill Area In this curriculum there are five skill areas: listening, viewing, speaking, reading and writing. Skill Element In this curriculum, elements of the skills of listening, viewing, speaking, reading and writing are further subdivided into various elements, expressed as content standards and learning outcomes. Spoken Text A coherent stretch of speech on any topic. For example, announcements, radio advertisements, conversations, directions, discussions, instructions, jokes, slogans, speeches and stories. Standard English English that is written and spoken according to conventional rules and norms. In written English, these conventional rules and norms are widely agreed upon. They have become established and, with minor variations, are used by all writers of English everywhere. They are found in dictionaries, grammar Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers 173 books and style guides. Thus, when it comes to writing, it is appropriate to refer to correct spelling, grammar and punctuation. However, all over the world, when speaking English, people pronounce words and use spoken grammatical structures in different ways. This means that there may be many different appropriate ways of pronouncing a word or conveying a message. None of these spoken language variations is inherently superior to any other and no one way of pronouncing a word can be deemed as being correct. In contrast, there can be incorrect ways of pronouncing a word, for example, when a child pronounces the word think as fink. Similarly, although there are local and regional conventions for speaking English, this does not mean that “anything goes”. Teachers need to help students distinguish between formal and informal structures, between appropriate and inappropriate structures and between standard English structures and those of Kriol. The target language of this curriculum is standard English. This implies that teachers should model standard English in their speech and writing as far as possible: that is except when its use would hinder learning. In classrooms where most of the students are Kriol speakers, it is important that teachers do not erratically switch between standard English and Kriol. Although, as is stated throughout this curriculum document, the use by the students of languages other than standard English may be both appropriate and beneficial, teachers should help students make the transition to using standard English. See Language Policy page 3 Student-Centred Activity-based teaching that is focused on the needs, interests, previous Teaching/Learning experiences and abilities of the students. In student centred teaching, with guidance from the teacher, students perform activities that enable them to construct new knowledge or develop new skills and attitudes. Students are often given choices and have to contribute their own ideas to the learning process. Student-centred teaching is often based around content themes that are relevant to the students’ lives. Sustained silent Reading in an uninterrupted manner for a significant period of time. reading In sustained silent reading programmes, also called Drop Everything and Read, students are given time to read a book silently for ten to fifteen minutes every day. Successful sustained silent reading programmes have the following characteristics: (1) Students read for a short period, at the same time, every day. (2) Students select their own books according to interest and ability. (3) Students have access to a range of book genres, both fiction and non-fiction, on a variety of topics written at different levels of difficulty. (4) The programme continues for the whole school year. (5) Students are not forced to write book reports and answer questions on everything they read. (6) In response to encouragement from the teacher, students motivate themselves rather than respond to compulsion, the threat of consequences, the promise of material rewards or other extrinsic motivators. (7) The teacher models silent reading for the students, in other words, as the students read, the teacher also reads. 174 Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers Syntax The rules governing the organization of phrases, clauses and sentences. Systematic Synthetic see phonics Phonics Syllable A word or part of a word that contains a single, uninterrupted, vowel sound and associated consonants. The word fingers has two consonants (fing+ers); church is made up of a single syllable; uninteresting has five syllables (un+in+ter+est+ing) and video has three (vid+e+o) Syllabication/ The division of spoken or written words into syllables. syllabification The ability to identify the syllables of spoken words is one of the phonological awareness skills that help a student learn to read. Target Language The language that instruction is designed to develop. In Belize, for most See also Bilingual purposes, the target language is standard English. Education. Text A text is a unified piece of written or spoken words numbers used to express meaning. A text can be of any length and any genre. Thus, books, letters, emails, poems, newspaper articles, invoices, advertisements, spoken and telephone conversations, and so on, are all texts. The study of texts involves study of the meaning that is being communicated, the medium of communication, and its context, especially the relationship between the people involved. Text-Based Approach A method of teaching language and literacy skills in which spoken and written texts are used as the main vehicle for teaching a wide range of language and literacy skills. Usually, activities relating to a text are divided into three categories: pre-reading activities, during reading activities, and post reading activities. Pre-reading activities activiate students prior knowledge of the topic and provide them with information and strategies to understand the text more effectively. During reading activities enhance comprehension and focus the students’ atention on key parts of the text. Post-reading activities direct students to think, talk and write about texts to demonstrate various levels of comprehension, creativity and critical thinking skills. They usually lead to extended, original written work, a presentation or a dramatic performance Relevant content, especially when based on a teaching theme, can make texts more interesting and meaningful to students because they can relate their work to their own experiences. Students may also more easily understand how the skills of listening, viewing, reading, speaking and writing will help them in their own lives. A text can be used as a vehicle for teaching many language skills including reading and listening comprehension at a variety of levels, alphabet code knowledge, extended and creative writing, vocabulary and grammar rules. For example, texts can be effectively used to teach grammar, spelling and punctuation; when students identify a grammatical feature in a meaningful text they are much more likely to appreciate how and why it is used than if they encounter it in an isolated sentence. Furthermore, because well-constructed texts can provide students with a model of grammar-in-use they are more likely to use the same grammatical features in their own writing. The same text can be used for several consecutive lessons. Repeated Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers 175 reading of a text is likely to deepen students’ comprehension and enhance their appreciation of its language use. Teaching through texts makes planning thematic, integrated language arts lessons relatively easy because the same text, which may be based on a curriculum theme, can be used as a vehicle for teaching a wide range of language skills. Teachers can use a text from another subject area, such as social studies or science, during a language arts lesson. For example, a text about fruits can be used to illustrate how writers can use adjectives to make a passage more interesting. Both the BJAT and PSE tests require students to demonstrate their comprehension of and ability to respond to texts. These responses can be evaluated for critical, inferential, critical and creative comprehension as well as for the ability to use language accurately. Text Comprehension Explicitly teaching students strategies to improve their understanding of Instruction texts. Strategies include predicting, asking questions, using context clues, see comprehension sounding out words and word attack skills. strategies, context clues Students can be taught to monitor their comprehension by asking: (1) What do I understand? (2) What do I not understand? and, (3) What can I do to understand this better? Students can be taught to use web-diagrams to analyse their comprehension of a text. Text comprehension instruction should begin in lower division. Themes/Thematic A content topic linking a unit or series of lessons. Approach see also student-centred This curriculum does not specify themes. Instead, teachers are encouraged teaching, annual plan, to develop their own themes based on topics that will be of interest to their unit plan, text-based students. Language Arts themes can also be drawn from other subject approach, whole-language areas. A teacher can choose as a theme any topic they like. Teachers may approach also ask students to suggest themes. (See also page 140) In the thematic approach, content themes are used to link the development of language skills to topics of interest to the students. Activities designed to help students achieve various reading, writing, listening, viewing and speaking learning outcomes are connected to the theme and the same theme is then used for a unit or for a series of lessons. The use of a thematic approach is strongly recommended. Timetable Allocation The amount of time devoted to a subject in a particular week. This curriculum does not mandate a minimum or maximum time for any subject. However, it is mandatory that timetables refer to Language Arts as an integrated subject. In other words, it is not appropriate for schools to timetable phonics, grammar, spelling, comprehension, creative writing and so on as separate subject areas. Transitional Bilingual See Bilingual Education Education “Tricky” Word A word that is not phonetically spelt, that is, which does not follow the usual see also sight word, word rules of the relationship between sounds and letters. For example, eight, wall. doubt, and yacht. Many of the most commonly used words in English are “tricky” words. For fluent reading, these words have to be learnt as sight words. 176 Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers Uninterrupted See Sustained Silent Reading Sustained Silent Reading Unit Plan The academic year should be divided into a number of units, each lasting a See also annual plan, specified amount of time, for example, a calendar month or a number of content standard, learning weeks. It is usual for each unit to have a content theme, such as transport, outcome, lesson plan, family life, or insects. These themes can, but do not have to be, drawn from objectives, and theme. other subject areas. The purpose of the unit plan is to structure several weeks of teaching in a coherent and logical way. A good unit plan: incorporates all the skill areas of listening, viewing, speaking, reading and writing; gives students a range of learning experiences in whole class, small group, and individual situations; and contains a range of assessment strategies. A unit plan can contain the following elements: Class (e.g. Standard 1P); number of students; duration of unit (weeks); number of expected lessons, taking into account holidays, trips and other events; the content theme; the curriculum content standards to be covered, (divided into listening, viewing, speaking, reading and writing); broad goals or objectives, based on curriculum learning outcomes; teaching strategies; student learning activities; teaching materials, texts, including stories and other books that the students will be exposed to; assessment strategies; and references listing the materials consulted during the creation of the unit. While there is no correct length or level of detail for a unit plan, it is not necessary to replicate the level of detail normally found in a lesson plan. A good unit plan can be written in three or four typed pages. Usage The way language is commonly used in practice. Especially in speech, common usage may often vary from the technically correct forms found in grammar books. Visual Literacy The ability to understand and interpret pictures, maps, diagrams, charts, photographs, logos, icons, works of art and other images. Web-diagram A chart with an idea in the centre, usually contained in a circle, from which see also concept map arrows radiate to related ideas. Also called spider diagram. Weekly Scheme A plan outlining teaching for a week. Weekly schemes should have various components, for example, topic, sub-topic, previous knowledge and experience of the students, content (with examples), teaching stratagies, learning activities, assessment and evaluation. A weekly scheme should clearly show which activities are planned for which day. This is most easily done by having the days of the week as subheadings in each of the sections. Whole Language A method of teaching students to read by emphasizing the meaning of Approach writing rather than its form or mechanics. Students frequently read and respond to stories and other “real-life” texts. The explicit teaching of phonics and grammar in isolation from texts is relatively rare in this approach. Although teachers may use the whole language approach, the underlying philosophy of this curriculum is that explicit skills-based instruction plays an important role in language and literacy development. Word Attack Skills Word attack skills are a range of abilities that allow a reader to interpret the See also context clues, meaning of a written word. Word attack skills include phonics; interpretation decoding skills of capital letters, punctuation and the use of paragraphs; the use of grammatical, morphological and etymological clues; comparison with similar, known words; and the use of other textual clues. Encyclopaedia of Information for Language Arts Teachers 177 Word wall A collection of target words, written is big writing, organized on a classroom wall, used to teach “tricky” words and vocabulary. To be effective, a word wall must feature regularly in teaching. It can be used to teach phonics and other spelling principles and can provide students with a reference for their own reading and writing. Words should be added gradually and practiced regularly. Word wall activities can include discussion and games. Writing Process A series of steps designed to improve the creation of original writing. The steps can include: (1) identifying the topic, audience and purpose of the writing; (2) gathering information; (3) categorizing, organizing and reviewing information and ideas; (4) creating an outline or plan (5) writing a first draft (6) editing, revising, writing a final draft and presenting. Although students are not expected to use all the steps of the writing process for every piece of work, they should become progressively skilled at applying the various steps and the process as a whole. 179 Bibliography Items marked * are have been published on-line and can be accessed free of cost. Text-books for Students Fast Phonics (2007) Ministry of Education, Belize Language Tree: Primary Language Arts for the Caribbean Macmillan Pubs Text-books on for Language Teachers Browne A (2002), Developing Language and Literacy 3-8, Paul Chapman Publ Chall J & Popp H (1996), Teaching & Assessing Phonics: Why, What, When, How Cooper D and Kiger N (2006), Literacy, Helping Students Construct Meaning, Houghton Mifflin McGee L & Mandel Morrow L (2005), Teaching Literacy in Kindergarten , The Guilford Press Moats L (2000), Speech to Print: Language Essentials for Teachers, Brookes Publishing Company st Tompkins G (2006), Literacy for the 21 Century: Teaching Reading and Writing in Pre-Kindergarten through Grade 4, Prentice Hall st Tompkins G (2006), Literacy for the 21 Century: A Balanced Approach, Prentice Hall Tyler R (1969), Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, The University of Chicago Press. Books and Reports on Language Teaching August D & Hakuta K (1998) Educating Language Minority Children National Research Council (http://books.nap.edu/catalog/6025.html) Armbruster et al Put Reading First: The Research Building Blocks for Teaching Children to Read * Burns M, Griffin P and Snow C (1999): Starting Out Right, A Guide to Promoting Children’s Reading Success National Research Council (US) Adger C, Snow C and Christian D, (2002), What Teachers Need to Know About Language ERIC Clearinghouse Moats L (1999), Teaching Reading is Rocket Science: What Expert Teachers of Reading Should Know and Be Able To Do. American Federation of Teachers * (www.k12.wa.us/CurriculumInstruct/Reading/pubdocs/TeachingReadingIsRocketScience.pdf) National Reading Panel 2000 Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction * (http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/smallbook.cfm) Snow C, Griffin P and Burns M (2005) Knowledge to Support the Teaching of Reading; Jossey-Bass Publications Reference Books Hacker D A Writer’s Reference Bedford St Martin’s Pubs Research on Language Teaching in Belize Bradley R & Robateau D, (2004) Using Literature to Teach Reading: A Model that Works Journal of Belizean Studies, vol 26 Internet Sites See relevant sections of the curriculum web.